What Strategies do Learners use to Learn Idiomatic Expressions?

Students who are not native English speakers (referred to as either ESL/EFL students) struggle with many issues related to becoming proficient with the language. One of the most common and difficult issues facing an EFL student is learning and remembering idioms. Many such students comment that idioms are incredibly difficult to learn because there is no logical relationship between the literal meaning of some words and the ultimate meaning of the idiom. An example of this problem is observed in idioms such as “falling in love”, in which an EFL student focuses on the meaning of “fall” without making the connection between that word and the definition of love. While this idiom makes perfect sense to a native English speaker, the EFL student will often be confused.

What is the definition of an idiom? The most basic definition describes an idiom as an expression containing multiple words, the meaning of which is dissimilar to the words taken separately (Qualls, O’Brien, Blood, & Hammer, 2003). An idiom is, therefore, a figurative expression that is not meant to be interpreted literally, such as “pulling my leg”, the last straw”, or “let the cat out of the bag.” Native English speakers learn such expressions over a period of years as they expand their vocabulary and commit them to memory (Qualls et al., 2003). This process is not readily available to EFL students who must find alternative methods for learning and understanding idioms.

Since idioms are not a common feature, or primary area of concern, in learning a foreign language, an EFL student that demonstrates a command of many idioms is able to communicate in English much more effectively. Some sources state (e.g., Liu, 2008) that intermediate and advanced level EFL students (often termed Level 4 or 5) are more focused on mastering idioms than learners with less experience. The primary reason given for this motivation is the added exposure that the more advanced EFL students have to the English language, in particular, spending years immersed in an English speaking environment. More experienced EFL students may often have a better understanding of the reasons for using idioms as well as how important they are in the English language. Idioms are a common form of figurative language in standard English, according to Gibbs (1999), but they are even more complicated since they often differ in areas such as composition and transparency. The overriding characteristic of idioms is the difference between the actual words and the meaning of those words in context.

This research addresses the ways that EFL students learn and remember idioms during the process of becoming more proficient with the English language. The next section provides a review of the literature on idioms and various methods for determining how learners develop an understanding of these figures of speech. Primary research was also conducted by means of a survey distributed to 20 EFL students classified as either Level 4 or 5. Eight students completed and returned the survey and the results of these are included in the section following the literature review. Finally, a discussion of the survey data is provided including the most popular methods used by the EFL students to interpret and/or remembers idioms.

Literature Review

While a basic definition for an idiom was provided earlier, the fact remains that there is some disagreement over how exactly they should be described. There are numerous authors who describe and classify idioms in various ways (e.g., Cooper, 1999; Grant & Bauer, 2004; Lennon, 1998; Simpson & Mendis, 2003). In other cases, scholars simply take a different perspective in how they describe idioms, such as Lennon (1998) who stressed the continuous scale of idiomaticity in language, while Zyzik (2011) emphasized fixed characteristics and syntax. Other language experts discussed the non-literal meaning implicit in idioms (e.g., Fernando, 1996), or length (e.g., Makkai, 1972). Consequently, there is not a consensus opinion regarding the best way to describe or study idioms.

The concept of figurative idioms was utilized in this research motivated largely by the way Grant and Bauer (2004) classified idioms according to figurative interpretation. Figurative idioms are phrases that do not refer to the literal meaning of the words included. This concept is what makes many idioms challenging for EFL students since they have to determine which words are literal and which are figurative. In most cases, this can only be determined by examining the context of the entire sentence.

Many language authorities are convinced that competence in the understanding of figurative idioms is directly related to overall communicative competence. The motivation for this understanding was formulated in classic theories proposed by Chomsky (1965) and Canale and Swain (1980) and later modified by Celce-Murcia (2008). This latter model Celce-Murcia (2008) concluded that comprehension of idioms in learning a language is a fundamental element of formulaic competence. Formulaic competence simply implies the ability to not just understand idioms (as parts of language) but to use them in personal expressions in the learned language (Celce-Murcia, 2008). Consequently, a language learner that is able to understand idioms and their proper usage can create and interpret an idiom in every-day speech (Buckingham, 2006). In a best-case scenario, a language learner takes little time to decode the genuine meaning of an idiom.

In reality, learning idioms is a process that consists of several steps. According to Knowles (2004), this involves five steps: “1) familiarization, 2) recognition, 3) comprehension, 4) mastery, and 5) automaticity.” Obviously, the goal of a language learner is automaticity, or the ability to communicate in the new language confidently without hesitation. One of the most effective methods for achieving automaticity is through continual practice in using idioms in the new language, especially if the learner is immersed in the new language culture (Knowles, 2004). Logically, the only truly effective way for language learners to become adept at understanding and using idioms is regular practice and exposure to the language.

While competency in idiomatic expressions is known to be instrumental in overall language competence, it is often difficult to accurately assess the competence level of EFL students. Numerous efforts have been made to design tests that can measure word traits with more than one meaning, but these efforts have proven inconsistent (Zareva, Schwanenflugel, & Nikolova, 2005). Measuring vocabulary in this context is occasionally done by means of size and quality (Nation, 2001; Richards, 1976), receptive control (Henriksen, 1999), or various other methods. These concepts are necessary for the understanding of phrases containing multiple words, especially when some of those words possess alternative meanings that are often figurative but always necessary for effective communication.

The literature reveals that the study of idioms typically focuses on three central concepts. One line of research involves the composition of idioms (e.g., Fernando, 1996; Grant & Bauer, 2004; Makkai, 1972). A second line of research addresses the most effective methods for teaching idioms to language students (e.g., Buckingham, 2006; Tran, 2012; Vasiljevic, 2011; Zyzik, 2009). Teaching idioms to EFL students typically relies on helping the learners to understand the proper context for interpreting the idiom. This is often accomplished through helping the learner to identify both the literal and figurative meanings of the key words in the idiom. Finally, students can be encouraged to learn idioms as a process of research and subsequent memorization of the phrase. This involves learning the most often used idioms that a student may hear on English-language television or radio or other similar sources. In reality, however, there is a dearth of literature based on research designed to determine the competency levels of EFL students. This gap in the research is one of the main reasons for this current research.

One of the few studies that examined the idiomatic competence of language students was conducted by Tran (2013), who found a low level of understanding for most idioms. At the most basic level, many EFL students were unable to identify and understand figurative idioms. The Tran study just examined the ability of language learners to understand what are considered the simplest idioms. Based on the framework for competency previously established by Burke (1988) and Buckingham (2006), Tran (2013) wanted to determine if language learners could effectively communicate using idioms. The conclusion reached by Tran was that the majority of the studied language learners possessed little recognition or comprehension of the idioms included in the study. Consequently, the learners studied did not experience the process mentioned earlier called automaticity when trying to use idioms.

The few studies that are available regarding language learners’ comprehension of idioms are nearly all focused on the lower level learners (e.g., Level 2). These EFL students are not typically as immersed in the English language environment as are students at higher levels and they have fewer opportunities to interact with native English speakers (Winis & Zakaria, 2013). The literature clearly indicates that EFL students who have the opportunity to interact with native speakers have a much better comprehension of the English language in general and idioms in particular. Moreover, daily activities such as watching television programs in English or reading (outside of the academic environment) in English also benefit language learners significantly. Since most learners have difficulty with idioms, these extra opportunities for exposure to the language are invaluable.

An earlier study revealed that language learners use a variety of methods to interpret the meaning of idioms. Cooper (1999) learned that one of the most often cited methods used by EFL students to understand idioms was looking for clues in the context of the sentence. Of course, what many of the students studied learned was that there are often few (if any) clues provided in the context that can aid the accurate interpretation of an idiom. Since an idiom contains—by definition—figurative meaning, it can be very challenging to simply rely on a perceived ability to decipher contextual meaning to reach an accurate understanding. In addition to trying to assess context, many learners also resort to simply guessing the meaning of an idiom since they have few other options. In general, the few studies that are available reported that these two methods—guessing and trying to determine proper context—are by far the most popular ways that EFL students attempt to understand the meaning of idioms.

While the methods discussed in the previous paragraphs are the most commonly used, they certainly are not the most effective or beneficial for language learners, if the goal is to improve language comprehension. The most effective way for learners to gain an understanding of idioms is to remain immersed in the language and culture of the target language since this will expose them to a more continuous opportunity to encounter a variety of idioms. This process is described as occurring when “the flow of conversation is interrupted” (Gass & Selinker, 2008, p. 317) which allows a learner to take some time to solve the problem facing them—in this case, the need to interpret the idiom. In some cases, a learner may simply ask the speaker (who used the idiom) to explain exactly what it means. Even if this process is used, it still represents the ability of the learner to engage in active conversational learning with a native speaker. This is in line with the interaction hypothesis proposed by Long (1996) and the more recent connection between learning and interaction stressed by Mackey, Abbuhl, and Gass (2012). Consequently, the literature stresses the importance of a variety of communication strategies to allow language learners an opportunity to more accurately understand idioms which will, in turn, result in a greater proficiency in the target language.

Finally, while there is an abundance of literature on idioms in general and even comprehension of idioms in certain contexts, there is a lack of literature on the methods preferred by EFL students for understanding idioms. The literature on idiom comprehension generally addresses three aspects—context, familiarity, and transparency (Rohani, Ketabi, & Tavakoli, 2012). The ability to understand idioms is not typically something possessed by many EFL students, for a variety of reasons explained in this section. At the same time, it is clear that the ability to understand idioms plays an important role in the EFL student’s ability to become more conversational in English (Rohani et al., 2012). The following sections provide the details of the data collected for this research as well as its meaning for EFL students and their ability to interpret idioms.

Data Report

The data collection for this paper was accomplished by means of a survey distributed to 20 long-term ESL students. The survey (please see the Appendix) contained 28 questions designed to assess the students’ understanding of idioms as well as their personal methods for interpreting idioms in the English language. Questions 1-6 provide a demographic background of the students; questions 7-12 assess the use of English in the students’ every-day life; questions 13-18 evaluate each student’s familiarity with and methods of interpreting idioms; and the final 10 questions provide rudimentary English language idioms and ask the students to interpret them. The students were also able to provide additional comments if desired, but none of them provided anything beyond the answers to the questions posed in the survey.

All 20 students were classified as either Level 4 (High Intermediate) or Level 5 (Advanced) ESL/EFL learners with a good grasp of the English language in general. Most of these students are majoring in a Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) program. While only eight students returned a completed survey, this sample is considered useful for the purpose of this research and should provide beneficial data related to the topic. The native language of the ESL students that completed and returned the surveys are: Arabic, Sinhala, French, Korean (3), and Chinese (2). All of these students are either bilingual or multilingual—with one student claiming proficiency in four languages. The mean age of the respondents was 27, with a high of 35 and a low of 23 years of age. These ESL students have been involved in learning English for an average of 18.5 years (with a range of 14-25 years). The mean age at which these students started to learn English was 8.4 (with a range of 5-13 years of age). Finally, the length of time that these ESL students have been immersed in an English language country ranges from a low of seven months to a high of ten years, with a mean of approximately 2.5 years.

The answers for questions 7-12 indicated that most students watch English speaking programs on television and read in English even outside of the school setting. In contrast, most of the students indicated that their parents and siblings did not speak English and their friends were not English speakers. One oddity observed in the responses (in light of the common practice of watching television in English and reading in English) was that the majority of these ESL students do not choose to listen to music in English but prefer music with lyrics in their native language. Most of the ESL students also admitted that they find it moderately to very difficult to understand English language idioms.

Questions 13-18, as mentioned previously, were designed to evaluate the students’ familiarity and comfort level regarding idioms, as well as any particular methods they utilize to interpret idioms they are not familiar with. The three most common methods mentioned for determining the meaning of an unfamiliar idiom were (in order of use): 1) conduct research or look up the definition; 2) ask the speaker; and 3) reasoning (guessing) based on the context. Two of the students admitted they just ignore unfamiliar idioms. Another typical practice utilized by several of the students was memorizing each idiom once it was understood. In fact, two students stated they keep a notebook containing a list of idioms and their meaning that they refer to from time-to-time with the goal of eventually committing these to memory.

The final ten questions—where ten idioms were listed and the students asked to describe what each one meant—provided a definitive opportunity for each student to prove their ability to understand common English language idioms. Ten idioms were listed: 1) rings a bell; 2) gave me a hand; 3) let the cat out of the bag; 4) pulling my leg; 5) on the back burner; 6) slipped my mind; 7) get a kick out of; 8) like the back of my hand; 9) get cold feet; and 10) the last straw. The students were asked not only to describe what each idiom meant but also explain the method they used to interpret the idiom if they were not already familiar with it.

Scoring for these questions was simple—a student was given one point for each idiom that was correctly described, which means the maximum points available was 80 (10 questions x eight students). Only two students scored a perfect 10, and the total points for all eight students were 62 out of the possible 80. In all cases where the student failed to understand the meaning of the idiom, he or she stated that guessing was used to try and explain the meaning. Two of the idioms were most confusing to the students: “get a kick out of”, and “the last straw.” The following section discusses in greater detail the data collected from the surveys.

Discussion

There are various methods utilized by ESL students in their attempts to learn idioms. For example, as mentioned by many of the students in the previous section, watching television and reading are two of the most popular methods used by students in an attempt to learn idioms that are used in the English language. When an idiom is heard or seen in a publication, many students use the internet to search for the meaning. Unfortunately, since an ESL student is unlikely to use that idiom in every-day conversation, they typically forget it. Therefore, the problem for ESL students is finding a way to relate to the idiom so as to make it more meaningful.

The entire list of methods for learning and remembering idioms used by the ESL students who completed the survey is presented here:

Student one: “I usually connect them to the situations which are associated with.”

Student two: “Teaching idioms to students makes me remember them at the same time.”

Student three: “Read novels and English dictionaries and manuals, watch TV shows, pay attention to what is said in radio talk shows, etc.”

Student four: “Every time when I come across a new idiom, I’ll first figure out the meaning. Then write it down into the notebook and review it when I have time.”

Student five: “Remember example sentence in dictionary.”

Student six: “Guessing or referring methods.”

Student seven: “Memorization.”

Student eight: “Reading.”

The first choice for most ESL students when trying to recall the meaning of an idiom is to make a connection between the English idiom and something they are familiar with in their mother tongue. Another method is to visualize the meaning of the idiom. One example of such a technique involves the idiom, “don’t put all your eggs in one basket.” An ESL student realizes what eggs and baskets are, and so they can picture a basket filled with eggs that can potentially result in eggs falling out and breaking. Although the precise meaning still may not be implicit, the student will at least comprehend the concept of putting some eggs in another basket to avoid problems. Similar techniques are used by students when they try to guess the meaning of an unknown idiom.

In the survey, for example, a few students noted that they try to picture something in the idiom (such as a key word) and guess what the idiom means based on their understanding of that word. Unfortunately, this method does not always succeed, as one student decided that “get a kick out of” meant “sick and tired of” by assuming that the word “kick” had a negative connotation. That definition, of course, is inaccurate in the extreme, but that method was nonetheless used consistently by many of the student participants in this research. Other students believed that “get a kick out of” meant “start” or “give up”. The primary issue with the methods used by these students for interpreting this idiom is their attempt to determine what “kick” meant in this context. Unfortunately, many ESL students simply try to translate the word “kick” into something they understand in their native language which fails to consider that the word means something completely different in this English language idiom.

Other, more successful examples of this method applied by the students include guessing the meaning of “gave me a hand” by picturing what people use their hands for, and “let the cat out of the bag” by visualizing the response to an actual cat jumping out of a bag. Consequently, it appears that some ESL students are much more successful at visualization in the interpretation of idioms than others. The most successful students were able to interpret unknown idioms by carefully examining every word to find clues in the context. Idioms such as “slipped my mind” and “on the back burner” were examples where the students used the rest of the sentence in which the idiom appeared to determine its meaning. That method was much more effective than attempts to just use the words of the idiom on their own—without the context of the entire sentence.

Some of the incorrect interpretations of the idiom “the last straw” included “the last thing I want to do”, “last opportunity”, “my last hope”, “the final thing that happened”, “that was my baseline”, and one student did not even attempt a guess. Clearly, all of these students tried to pick up on the word “last” and extrapolate the meaning of the idiom from that. However, since this idiom refers to a process of stacking pieces of straw (which are very lightweight) until just one more piece of straw is too heavy, these ESL students failed to understand the point. Students who are not native English speakers are likely unaware of this idiom and it is unlikely that they can learn it based solely on examining the sentence in which it is contained. In all probability, the students who understood this idiom had heard it before and remembered it, especially since this was one of the most often cited methods used, according to the student comments.

The students included in this research, as well as ESL students in general, have difficulty learning idioms because educational institutions in the United States do not place a great deal of emphasis on idioms. Colleges and universities consider idioms informal language elements that are not critical knowledge for ESL students. Nonetheless, since most native English speakers frequently use idioms in every-day speech, ESL students are at a disadvantage when they try to communicate with native speakers. Moreover, many ESL students feel little need to learn idioms and place a greater emphasis on becoming proficient in academic English. Since every state has its own idioms, it is not easy for the students to master the idioms even when they have a desire.

This study did not attempt to determine which language groups were more successful at interpreting the meaning of idioms since that was beyond the scope of the research. However, it is interesting to note that the three Korean students and one of the Chinese students had similar issues in recognizing the meaning of several idioms. At the same time, these same four students were among those with the least amount of time immersed in the English language environment. Consequently, it is unclear from this research whether it is more difficult for Asian-language ESL students to learn English idioms or if the issue is primarily one of less time immersed in the environment. These are obviously topics for future research.

Conclusion

Students who are not native English speakers struggle, often demonstrating high anxiety in the classroom, with many issues related to language proficiency and one of the most problematic is learning and remembering idioms. The literature, as well as the data collected in this study, indicates that idioms are incredibly difficult to learn, largely due to their inability to understand the figurative meaning of words that they tend to interpret literally. While most idioms are clearly understood by native English speakers, the EFL student is often confused. Language learners also have a variety of methods used in the interpretation of unfamiliar idioms. Most EFL students try to determine meaning based on the context of the sentence or simply guess the meaning.

The ability to successfully communicate in English is critical for EFL students who often desire to obtain careers and remain in the United States. This study revealed that many students use faulty methods for understanding idioms and this failure could result in negative long-term consequences for the students. There is a need for EFL students to adopt methods that are more effective and that will allow a better opportunity for integration into the English speaking culture. The results of this study may contribute to an improved assessment of these methods.

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(Appendix A omitted for preview. Available via download)