Amenemhet II, the Twelfth Dynasty, And Trade and Conquest During the Middle Kingdom

Background

Amenemhet II is considered a formidable pharaoh that ruled during the 12th dynasty in Ancient Egypt. There is a nominal amount of information on the reign of Amenemhet II, but information is available due to several important documentation associated with the 12th Dynasty known as the genut, which described the daily palace operations. The Egyptian historian, Manetho, noted that Amenemhet II reigned for 38 years in Ancient Egypt. According to most accounts, Amenemhet II is known for his work in foreign affairs by concisely executing certain avenues of his ancestors, particularly his father and grandfather . Some documents reveal Amenemhet II to have been a pivotal force in the centralization of government of Egypt. However, he failed in ensuring government centralization for more than 2 generations of rulers, but he also worked to keep expansion of the conquests of Egypt to a minimum.

Introduction

Research will be precisely geared towards understanding Amenemhet II's rule during the 12th dynasty in Ancient Egypt, with emphasis placed on what particularly paved the way for his successful rule and facilitation of peace and trade. There appear to be differentiating documents on how Amenemhet II influenced trade relations, but by most accounts he followed his predecessor's operations and thus, understanding of his father would have to be examined and analyzed given the conflict and lack of information on Amenemhet II’s direct influence during the 12th dynasty. Essentially, the question asked is: was Amenemhet II a hindrance to Ancient Egypt with regard to trade relations or did his efforts in commerce further the civilization? Moreover, information collected for this project will have to be thoroughly assessed given the minimal amount of information specifically on Amenemhet II. Most information analyzed insofar captures a brief panoramic view of Amenemhet II rather than an extensive study. Therefore, this study will place emphasis on inferences regarding Amenemhet II’s rule, the peace he facilitated, and the trade relations with neighboring nations, lands, and prospective conquests.

Egypt has a rich history and was structured by scholars as a system of dynasties distinguished by rulers who were either united by kinship, by geographic originality or birthplace, or city residence. Before ensuing discussion on the ruling and the trade relations influenced by Amenemhet II, the rule of king Amenemhet I and Sesostris I must be recognized and discussed as well as the transitions between the 11th and 12th Egyptian dynasties. Additionally, the reigning pharaohs after Amenemhet II will also be discussed in order to make inferences to Amenemhet II’s influence on trade and peace relations with other nations and prospective conquests.

Amenemhet II was the king of ancient Egypt and the third ruler of the 12th dynasty, and was the sole ruler of ancient Egypt between 1935 – 1906 B.C. Sesostris I, Amenhemet II’s father, was known for his successful campaigns and relations with Nubia. Relations with Nubia during the Early Middle Kingdom must be discussed in order to understand the implications of Amenhemhet II’s rule and the subsequent culture and power relations.

Evidence of Nubian Pharaohs and Egyptianization

Because this paper initially sought to understand trade relations during the rule of Amenemhet II and the Middle Kingdom with Nubia, it is important to understand the influence (or lack thereof) that Egypt had on the Nubian region. The significance of hieroglyphics demonstrates the fact that there were three rulers otherwise undocumented located in lower Nubia on the monuments. While scholars claim that these rulers are by-and-large located in Nubia, which is a remarkable observation because archaeological observations of lower Nubia display no shreds or interests in Egyptian civilization nor evidence that Lower Nubia was willing to submit to Egypt. These three rulers of Lower Nubia, namely Qa-Ka-Re’ Iny, attributed to the eighth dynasty, Gereg-tawy-fy, whose name was similar in meaning to Neferhotep I of the thirteenth dynasty, and Ankh, whose name was seemingly derived from the 11th dynasty, have been dated plausibly to any of the three periods . According to archaeological excavations at these sites as well as text written on tombs and tributes to these three Nubian rulers, Egyptianization, or Egyptian influence, cannot be identified explicitly, which potentially means that Nubia, although peaceful while slowly having been conquered by Egypt during the Middle Kingdom, did not desire to submit to Egypt. Therefore, Amenemhet II’s rule can be considered minimally influential in Nubia, which suggests capitalistic trade relations but not cultural assimilation with Egypt.

Egypt and Egyptian rule and influence on the neighboring regions and affiliates are complex to say the least, and evidence from the archaeological record is by-and-large guesswork, especially regarding undocumented trade relations. However, it is known that by 2500 BC (centuries before Amenemhet II’s rule) Egypt was already an integrated empire that had rulers whose powers, coupled with a highly bureaucratic and complex hierarchical political society, influenced and touched the lives of every citizen in Egypt, which was strongly influenced by economic and military force felt throughout North Africa and the Mediterranean. These cultural themes and phenomenon would continue in the centuries that followed up until the Ptolemies transformed Egypt and the baroque era touched the nation-state. Also, by about 2700, Egypt was highly centralized and about as highly centralized as early political systems tended to get. In fact, people tended to live in largely autonomous and self-sufficient towns and villages although their self-sufficiency was largely tied to the Nile, the Nile delta, and environmental limitations, events, and personalities of rulers.

Trade during the Middle Kingdom and the Twelfth Dynasty

The high complexity and influence of Egyptian rule has been briefly alluded to. It is important to understand basic inferences of trade during the Middle Kingdom before ensuing discussion on relations before and after Amenemhet II’s reign. The Nile valley was a prime geographical location for trade for goods to be sent to and from the Mediterranean and interior Africa. In 1900 BC under the reign of Sesostris II Egypt successfully conquered northern Nubia officially. Egypt built vast fortresses in the Nile Valley in order to control trade activity and the growing powers of the Nubians until they conquered Lower Nubia between 1500 and 1100 BC, which extended as far as the fourth cataract. Egypt desired to dominate Nubia because the nation and its kings were motivated by the wealth of minerals, gold, ivory, ebony, and animal skins from further south in Africa.

However, during the Egyptian New Kingdom (after the Middle Kingdom) which is a period characterized by greater amounts of colonialism (between 1550 and 1069 BC), it has been argued that Egyptian cultural influence in Lower Nubia transitioned to ‘Egyptianization’; a pattern of cultural transformation suggesting that the power of Egypt and the conquest of Nubia by the Egyptian empire was complete. In fact, Egyptianization has been a framework for analyses dedicated to Egyptian relations and change in Egypt’s territorial expansion and foreign territories. Amenemhet II consolidated and acknowledged the previous work of his predecessors and contributed to successful exchange in the Mediterranean region, especially known for jewelry exchange. Did prospects during Amenemhet II’s rule further Egyptianization and trade in Nubia, and was the area further colonized during his reign? What little evidence there is suggests that Amenemhet II’s rule was built upon what his predecessors had started but was not primarily characterized by aggressive Egyptianization and forced trade and/or conquest.

Egyptians occupied Nubia, the southward continuation of the Egyptian Nile Valley, during the Middle Kingdom, which was characterized by the building of fortresses and fortified towns, and Egyptians increasingly ran villages. During the Middle Kingdom, Kush, an area in Upper Nubia between the second and fourth cataracts, remained independent during the ruling of Amenemhet II. However, it was not until the New Kingdom began that the Wawat and Kush regions of Nubia were officially occupied by Egypt, when this likely could have occurred during the ruling of Amenemhet II if he had pushed his boundaries as a ruler. However, Amenemhet II’s rule was characterized by prosperity and trade with Nubia, as opposed to pharaohs before and after his reign.

Amenemhet II’s Predecessors

The ruling of Amenemhet II’s predecessor, his grandfather and the founder of the 12th dynasty, Amenemhet I, should be briefly discussed in order to understand the relationships Amenemhet II was able to facilitate and maintain as previously discussed. During Amenemhet I’s reign, place names found on hieroglyphic writings suggest that the name Amenemhet means “possession” or “possessor of two lands”. The 12th dynasty was characterized by dynastic change, namely the usurpation of the throne and the beginning of the practice of coregency, the concurrent ruling of two pharaohs. Amenemhet I’s contribution, in addition to coregency in order to streamline the process of ruling and the transition from one king to another, justifies why it is reasonable to assume Amememhet II’s ruling was characterized by what he learned from Sesostris I, and what Sesostris I learned from Amenemhet I. Also, Amenemhet I’s rule was characterized by his astuteness in setting regional and local boundaries as well as his move from his residence in Thebes to the foundation of Itj-towy, the new national capital under Amenhemet I, which remained influential up and through the start of the New Kingdom.

The teachings of Amenemhet I were used as blueprints for his successor and son, Sesostris I, especially at the start of his troublesome beginning. Passages translated by professionals on the treatise drafted by Amenemhet I suggest that his treatise declared him and his successors (sons) as gods, as rulers of Upper and Lower Egypt, and created the allusion of dreams as revelations of divinity. Sesostris I was also engaged in the campaigns involving Libya, and the function of residences and fortresses was present to mitigate uprisings during the 12th Dynasty as well as the creation of the new capital Itj-towry, a site that served both as a royal residence and the new center of administrative government. Itj-jowry was a walled town founded by Amenemhet I, and the trend of the creation of walled towns during the reigns of Sesostris I and Amenemhet II would continue, further solidifying trade relations and previous conquests of Nubia.

It is important to discuss the function of coregency through one particular classical study that examines the coregency of Sesostris I and his father, Amenemhet I as the pivotal example of coregency that characterized the 12th Dynasty. According to Simpson in his 1956 case study on the topic, this particular coregency was the first of its kind, the longest standing coregency, and the cause of controversy as well as arguments as to what the function of coregency served in the state as well as religiously, which alludes to particular issues that the twelve dynasty and subsequently the rule of Amenemhet II would suggest. Coregent reign assumes that one ruler would take precedent over the other, and that one ruler might oversee functions that the other ruler would not (for example, religious duties and state responsibilities). The stability of the twelfth dynasty is largely accredited to the establishment of coregency, which is evident during Amenemhet II’s reign, who served coregently with Sesostris I and his son Sesostris II in order to ensure smooth transition between kings. Coregency contributed to the success of the twelfth dynasty and the slow conquer of Nubia as well as the facilitation of trade without the evident process of Egyptianization.

Successors of Amenemhet II

Sesostris II contributed significantly to what Amenemhet II and his predecessors had already established: the building of fortresses and the remained trade and steady conquest of Nubia. Sesostris II was the fourth ruler of the twelve dynasty and served as coregent to Amenemhet II and then became his successor in 1897-1878 BC. Sesostris II also solidified the southern boundary of Egypt directly above the second cataract as well as contributed to the centralization of the Egyptian dynasty by being watchful and curbing the power of Egyptian nobility similar to what Amenemhet II contributed during his reign.

In summation, the Middle Kingdom, (2055-1650 BC) was differentiated by two different periods; namely the 11th Dynasty in which the ruling center was the upper Egyptian city of Thebes, and the 12th dynasty, of which is the focus of this paper and was centered in the Lisht region in Faiyum (with focus before and after Amenemhet II’s rule, since there is limited scholarship specifically on his rule). The 12th Dynasty was marked by stronger and inspired grandiose structures, in opposition with the 13th Dynasty, which was characterized more by high art and literature.

Additionally, like his father, Sesostris II’s reign was characterized by peace, more or less. Diplomacy, little or no warfare, and trade with the near east and the steady conquest of Nubia characterized his reign. His interests were more geared towards cultivation and expansion of the Fayoum as opposed to waging war with neighbors and regional nobles. Since we have established that Amenemhet II did not seek war with nobles but mitigated their power by continuing the centralization of his government, steady conquest and protection of resources in Nubia, and by-and-large peaceful but grandiose reign, Sesostris II’s reign seemed to be a continuation of what his father had already established as well as what his namesake Sesostris I had fought to establish. As a matter of fact, the end of the First Intermediate Period in which Mentuhotep III who was overthrown by Amenemhet I, his rule started off controversially although he was coregent with his father. However, his rule symbolized the start of a prosperous period after his father, and therefore led to the success of Amenemhet II.

External Influential Forces on Trade and Prosperity of the 12th Dynasty

Pharaoh’s strategic ruling tactics were not the only factors influencing the prosperity of the 12th Dynasty. When considering how these pharaohs were able to maintain peace and trade relations and prosperity as well as the slow attribution of Nubia, archaeologist Barbara Bell conducted an analysis based on climate change in the region, analyzing the influential external forces on the dynastic periods 12 and 13.

Abnormal climatic activity can influence peace and trade relations in any time period. Bell claims that cultural and historical influences of the great floods, or floods of abnormal and severe scale, recorded at Semna during the last reigns of the 13th dynasty, did not suggest a material decline in prosperity. The floods characterized and influenced the short reigns of the 13th dynasty partially due to lack of faith attributed to talks of divine influence of the pharaohs and their blame on the unfortunate famines and the dark ages that followed due to lack of flooding. Additionally, Bell suggests that the First Dark Age, circa 2180 BC, was precipitated by an already weak political and social operation in the Old Kingdom coupled with the deficiency of annual flooding. Also, climatic fluctuation continued until approximately 1992 BC in the direction of greater drought and aridity. The climate started to stabilize as well as peace and trade relations, thus transitioning into the prosperity of the Middle Kingdom.

During the Middle Kingdom, which is considered an emblematic period of Egyptian prosperity and civilization, the Egyptian people were well-fed and educated compared to periods before and after and were aware of socioeconomic advancement opportunity in the complex society in which they lived. The Pharaohs of the twelve dynasty built credibility as gods due to the good climatic fortune of the period. Therefore, it is constantly questioned why this period, and the reign of Amenemhet II and his successor, was characterized by peace and prosperity. We must understand that, with increased and continued emphasis on divine powers and authority, strong centralized government, and good climatic fortune, the reigns of these pharaohs were met with good fortune due to multiple factors. In fact, only one text (by the time Bell wrote her pivotal piece) implied famine and was found on Ameny’s tomb and inscribed during the reign of Sesostris I (which would support the suggestive evidence that his reign was initially controversial). Regardless, Sesostrist I’s reign was not characterized by drought, and his reign was ‘one of the most glorious in Egyptian history’.

Additionally, although Nubia remained peaceful during the reigns of Sesostris I, Amenemhet II, and Sesostris II, Sesostris III was more military-minded and was a pharaoh that led four significant military campaigns in Upper Nubia, ordering the building of additional forts at a more rapid pace and enlarged those already in existence. Sesostris III later pacified Nubia and became worshipped as a deity. Additionally, Amenemhet III, son of Sesostris III, became known as one of the most prosperous kings of the Middle Kingdom and took Nubia by force and held firm control over the region, no longer having to trade and conquer what had been a long time process.

Discussion

Overall research suggests that the reign of Amenemhet II facilitated the slow progression of the Nubian conquest as well as trade relations. Trade during his reign placed high value on jewelry, protection of minerals and natural resources, ivory, animal skins, and materials for high art and literature. The reign of Amenemhet II suggests a golden age of prosperity and success for Egypt’s economic and regional conquest, including the facilitation of good trade relations as opposed to war and conquest alone. Amenemhet II was lucky throughout his reign due to the solid political setup thanks to his predecessors and the predictable climate characteristic during the reign of the 12th dynasty. In general, more research is needed regarding relations with Nubia during these times of apparent peace and the slow conquest of Egypt’s expansion into Nubia.

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