Ancient History Chapter Summaries

1. Chapter 1: How did Egyptian and Sumerian writing systems differ? Egyptians developed a system of writing known as hieroglyphics by 3200 B.C.E that was largely pictographic but also utilized symbols that represented ideas and sounds. It was used on monumental inscriptions as well as in formal writing and solely consisted of consonants. It was written on monuments as well as papyrus paper (Bentley and Ziegler 77). Sumerians developed a writing system known as Cuneiform or "wedge-shaped" writing around 2900 B.C.E. which combined pictographs and other symbols in order to communicate abstract ideas. This system did not depend solely on pictures, as graphic symbols represented not only physical objects but also ideas, sounds, and syllables. This writing system proved useful in articulating complex and abstract ideas (45). Unlike hieroglyphics, cuneiform developed and transformed according to the needs of a plethora of languages such as Akkadian, Old Persian, and Elamite; Egyptian hieroglyphs were solely used in Egyptian society and did not adapt within other societies. Furthermore, the cuneiform script included both consonants and vowels and was written on wet clay tablets (46).

2. Chapter 2: How "legal" was the Code of Hammurabi? To maintain his empire, Hammurabi, the king of the Babylonian empire, provided a law code predicated on the principle of lex talionis, or the "law of retaliation. Criminals and offenders endured punishments commensurate to their violations (Bentley and Ziegler 38). It consisted of 282 laws that codified and intended to preserve the rights of Babylonian citizens (Kreis). However, it took social standing into account when levying punishments. If a noble, for example, broke the nose of a commoner, the noble would merely be fined. However, if he broke the nose of another noble, he would get his nose broken. Although the code provided some unity throughout the vast empire, judges often ignored the code in certain cases and instead used their personal judgment to decide cases (Bentley and Ziegler 39).

3. Chapter 3: What role did Abraham play in Jewish history? Abraham is considered the first patriarch of the Jews who established the covenant, a fundamental tenet in Judaism, between the Jewish people and God (Modrzejewski 5). This tenet espoused that the followers of the Jewish God had duties and obligations to God while God conversely has obligations to his followers (7). Furthermore, he was the first figure to propagate monotheism during a time when people living in Mesopotamian societies and even his own father worshiped many deities (Bentley and Ziegler 48).

4. Chapter 4: What was the relationship of Minoan civilization to the Ancient Greeks? Minoan civilization thrived on the island of Crete and was considered integral in the early development of Greek society (Bentley and Ziegler 240). Minoans formulated early writing systems known as Linear A and later Linear B, which later influence the development of the Greek alphabet. Other Minoan traditions such as maritime trade and construction were adopted by the early inhabitants in Greece (241).

5. Chapter 5: How did Alexander the Great achieve his conquests? Alexander inherited his father Phillip of Macedon's expanding empire but continued to invade the Persian empire with an army of thirty-seven thousand men. His army was well-disciplined and well-equipped as a result of his father's military ventures, and Alexander did not try to impose his own ideas about religion or behavior on conquered peoples as long as they did not hinder the capabilities of his army. He was a brilliant military strategist and employed diplomacy in order to manage his far-flung empire comprised of various ethnic groups (Bentley and Ziegler 251). In order to administer his empire, he turned to established institutions such as the Persian satrapies and embraced Persian customs (253).

6. Chapter. 6: Summarize the issues fought over in Rome's civil wars between 133 and 27 BCE. Economic dislocation in the city of Rome as a result of the instability of the price of grain, slave revolts, and turmoil in the Roman military catalyzed a political upheaval which resulted in the transformation from republic to empire (Lecture 26: Fall of the Roman Republic, 133-27 BC.). The Gracchi brothers advocated social reform as a result of violent tensions between the social classes during the second century; they attempted to limit the amount of conquered land that an individual could possess, but wealthy patricians assassinated them out of fear that they would curb their power. Thus, it was evident that power remained concentrated in the hands of a wealthy minority who passed policies that served their own interests rather than the republic at large. Furthermore, the rise of personal armies by powerful commanders transferred the loyalty of soldiers from serving the state to serving their commanders. Members of the urban poor joined these armies, which threatened political and social stability (Bentley and Ziegler 276). Julius Caesar, within this context, began Rome's transition to a more autocratic form of government (277).

7. Chapter 7: Explain the Roman opposition to Jesus and his early followers. Romans were polytheistic while Jesus preached about one Christian God. Early Christians did not participate in Roman state cults and did deify the Roman emperor. Their refusal to do both resulted in various periods of persecution which aimed to get rid of Christianity, which threatened the Roman empire (Bentley and Ziegler 292). Furthermore, Jesus constantly preached about how the kingdom of God was near. This idea threatened Roman administrators because they believed it was imbued with political ideas. This "kingdom of God," they believed, threatened to overthrow Roman power in Palestine. Jesus and his early followers attracted large and fervent crowds and empowered the lower classes as well as women. To evade popular rebellion, Roman administrators sentenced Jesus to death by crucifixion (290).

8. Chapter 8: What were the consequences, for Christianity, of the Edict of Milan? After decades of the religious persecution of Christianity, the Roman emperor Constantine passed the Edict of Milan, which codified religious toleration and thus enabled Christians to openly practice their faith. As a result, a swell of people from all social ranks converted to Christianity. This served as the first step towards Christianity becoming the official state religion in 390 A.D. and allowed it to flourish in the western world (Bentley and Ziegler 317).

Works Cited

"Lecture 26: Fall of the RomanRepublic,133-27 BC." H102_25 Fall of the Roman Republic, 133-27 BC. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2014. <http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~rauhn/fall_of_republic.htm>.

Bentley, Jerry H., and Herbert F. Ziegler. Traditions & Encounters: a Global Perspective on The Past. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000. Print.

Kreis, Steven. "The Code of Hammurabi." The Code of Hammurabi. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Mar. 2014. <http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/hammurabi.html>.

Modrzejewski, Joseph. The Jews of Egypt: From Rameses II to Emperor Hadrian. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1995. Print.