Democracy, The Market Revolution, And The Second Great Awakening

The Second Great Awakening was, simply put, a religious revival. Over the course of over thirty years, new zeal for religion and religious freedom spread across the country. It completely transformed those left in its wake, converting both women and men, whites and blacks, and rich and poor, into a new religion. However, the Second Great Awakening also changed the face of Christianity, creating a more diverse Protestant faith, marked by emotion and freedom for its believers.

As with any change, there are certain catalysts that give rise to a significant event. The Second Great Awakening was no exception, and there were certain societal developments that helped give rise to the movement. According to Hatch, the most significant event in American history is the American Revolution. The Second Great Awakening and its ideals can all be causally connected back to the American Revolution. The revolution itself signified a new way of thinking, challenging the pre-established societal ideals of “authority, organization and leadership.” At the same time, the American Revolution widened the existing circles of those citizens thought of as being capable of making their own decisions about their “freedom, equality, sovereignty, and representation.” With these fundamental changes to society put in motion, changes to the ways that people worshipped was a logical next step in the evolution process.

The religious phenomenon that was the Second Great Awakening gave rise to multiple different denominations, each unique in their own right. Each religious sect had its own followers, who arguably represented a different demographic group of society as a whole. However, each religion shared the common ethics of “unrelenting toil, a passion for expansion, a hostility to orthodox beliefs and style, a zeal for religious reconstruction, and a systematic plan to realize their ideas.” Each religion also offered everyone (in particular the poor) a “compelling visions of individual self—respect and collective self-confidence.” This is most eloquently captured by Barton Stone in the text, as he shared the Mormon principles which effectively rebuked the authority of the existing government, and bestowed the ultimate sovereign governing authority back on Christ alone. Most importantly, these groups shared the commonality of representing those who had been previously denied such representation, but now actively pursued it in the name of democracy.

The increasingly democratic nature of society during the time is, therefore, a key reason for the Second Great Awakening. During this time period following the American Revolution, “common people” grew increasingly significant in religious groups . Must like Americans moved towards democracy, the quest for autonomy was echoed in their pursuit of religion. The masses grew to resent what they reviewed as control of American Christianity by the elite members of society. The prevailing school of thought was that each individual should be free to make their own decisions, whether it be in government (as evidenced by the rise of democracy during the time), or in their salvation (as evidenced by the rise of new religions during the time) According to the text, these ideas directly contributed to the growth of the Methodist and Baptist movements among Americans. The idea was that with all adult males being free to vote, they should similarly be allowed to make individual decisions regarding their beliefs. However, this alone did not explain the rise of the black churches which also grew out of the Second Great Awakening, particularly when there was such a disparity in the level of freedom between the two races.

There was a palpable undercurrent within the black community during the years following the American Revolution. The disparity between the races was increasingly unacceptable for blacks, and the quest for democracy and individual freedom was growing. The “status quo” for the time period (incorrectly interpreted by whites, and then incorrectly attributed back to scripture) was that slavery was predetermined and even ordained by God. Black people in the society were slaves, and subject to ownership and direction of white slave masters because the Bible said so. The belief that man, and not God, was responsible for controlling the lives of people was in stark contrast to the new religion doctrine embraced during the Second Great Awakening. Instead, the religions embraced by black people during the time period preached deliverance and acceptance for everyone, regardless of the color of their skin. In fact, even the Book of Mormon preached that “men are free according to the flesh, and all things are given them which are expedient unto man.” Although their freedom was not yet recognized by a nation, it was clearly being recognized by God.

A similar sentiment was felt among women during this time period. The text notes that a disproportionate number of women converted to Christianity during the Second Great Awakening. Hatch argues that the revival helped women to develop a separate identity, apart from the one that was created in a traditionally male-dominated household. Prior to the revival, women were presented with few options:

…[M]arriage is the only object left open to woman. Philosophy she may pursue only fancifully, and under the pain of ridicule: science only as a pastime, and under a similar penalty. Art is declared to be left open: but the necessary learning, and, yet more, the indispensable experience of reality, are denied to her. Literature is also said to be permitted: but under what penalties and restrictions? Nothing is thus left for women but marriage.

Women generally filled their time only with leisure activities, and religion was arguably simply a vehicle to provide these women some sort of relief from the monotony of their days. However, an argument similar to the one applied to blacks in search of more freedom could also be applied here. Not only were individual households dominated by men, society as a whole during that time period was also dominated by men . The existing Presbyterian teachings imposed feelings of “guilt and unworthiness” to anyone who deviated from the social norms. These feelings would likely be imposed on any woman seeking autonomy from her husband (or her household) within the patriarchal society. However, women likely found comfort in the teachings of new religions during the time period, elevating these women into a position of freedom (albeit limited), explaining the genders’ exodus from Protestantism.

Notably, not everyone who embraced religion during the Second Great Awakening did so as a result of the growing movement of democracy and freedom. Others did so because of the evolving economy during the early 1800s and their own efforts to a different kind of status quo. Under existing societal norms and religious concerts, elitists generally controlled society. However, the cultural evolution also came tensions between the classes, which threatened to change the dynamics between employers and workers. Workers began to protest their perceived positions in society, claiming that “their condition…is lower than justice demands it should be.” They began to rise up against the “unequal and very excessive accumulation of wealth and power into the hands of a few.” Capitalists saw religion as a way to keep the working class “in line” by embracing, and then perverting, the religious values of “sobriety and industry and a belief in individual responsibility’” that came along with the Second Great Awakening. The elitists attempted to use religion as a method of social control, hoping to quash the growing level of dissatisfaction among the workers. This is particularly noteworthy when nearly 70% of the converts to Methodism were reportedly journeymen and unskilled labor or street trade workers, and less than 3% were professionals or gentlemen. Although not directly tied back to democracy, the rise of democracy did serve to create the underlying social issues which resulted in the growth of religion at the time.

Irrespective of how an individual chose to exercise his religious freedom, the end result was still the reformation of existing religions, as well as the creation of a number of “insurgent” religious groups. Until the Second Great Awakening, the Baptist and Methodist faiths were markedly different than the ones following the revolution. Until that time, the religions emphasized “plain preaching and the individual’s ability to save one’s self” However, in what was interpreted as an apparent revolt against the established religious norms, the faith, and its followers began to preach the idea of free will, and of the promise of God’s salvation for all, instead of for just a few. They sought to reach the masses with sermon filled with emotion, rather than simply the “logical and finely spun arguments” of their predecessors. They were also very successful in doing so. By 1820, there were nearly one quarter million Methodists in the United States. Over the next decade, that number doubled. By the late 1830s, the faith was the fifth largest denomination in the country. However, this was only the beginning.

The Second Great Awakening also gave rise to new religions. The Disciples of Christ and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (commonly referred to as Mormons) were founded during this time period. The Disciples were founded in 1830 by a former Presbyterian, who later merged the sect with another group of Christians (notably also led by a converted Presbyterian) as more and more people moved away from existing denominations. At the same time, Joseph Smith founded the Mormon faith which quickly grew in popularity. The establishment of these two religions provided great choices for believers, and the ability to exercise their (democratic) right to choose.

Before the Second Great Awakening, Calvinism was the dominant idea in religion. Calvinist orthodoxy demanded a “predictable form of religious experience” with “rigid theological systems,” including “high-toned clericalism… and penchant for cultural domination.” However, this doctrine left little room for individualism. Further, the strict ideals and menacing boundaries imposed on society left little room for anyone who was not white. According to Hatch, the key component of the development of religion during the Second Great Awakening lies in the provision for individual expression that each of these groups afforded to its members. As exemplified by the “rousing gospel” found in the newly-established black Baptist churches, these new religious allowed each individual (true to the spirit of democracy) to retain their own voice, even in the way that they chose to worship.

Additionally, while each religion was fundamentally different from the next, they are shared one common characteristic which spurred their collective growth. While each religion adhered to its unique fundamental convictions, each insurgent group also shared a unique ability to appeal to the “hopes and aspirations” of the masses, which had been notably absent from the previously-established religions. The new preachers rejected the common notion of social power and, instead, preached of God’s love and salvation for everyone, regardless of their social status. In fact, the underlying message of these religions was attributed back to the democratic rhetoric of the American Revolution, rejecting tyrannical control. This is the same tyrannical control exhibited by the Calvinist doctrine which was rejected with the Second Great Awakening.

The democratic spirit in nineteenth-century America was clearly evident in the Second Great Awaking. The spirit created a thirst for individuality and freedom, spurred into action by the American Revolution. It created the desire for religion expression, realized through the reform of religion during the era. It also forever changed the face of Christianity.

Bibliography

“A Defense of Camp Meetings (1814),” in John Hollitz, ed., Thinking Through the Past, Volume I: to 1877 (Boston: Wadsworth, 2010), 150.

Hatch, Nathan. “The Second Great Awakening and the Transformation of American Christianity,” in John Hollitz, ed., Thinking Through the Past, Volume I: to 1877 (Boston: Wadsworth, 2010).

Hollitz, John. “Thinking Through the Past, Volume I: to 1877” (Boston: Wadsworth, 2010).