The Development of France and England During the 9th and 10th Centuries

After the fall of the Roman Empire, many of its territories became increasingly fragmented and independent. Two of these territories, France and England, provide interesting examples of how Europe developed from the tribal polities of Germanic and Anglo peoples to the unified states of France and England. While France formed from the disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire, England formed from the gradual unification of seven independent kingdoms. Furthermore, after the unification, England remained undivided while 'West Francia' had territories that remained contested until World War II. Both countries however faced challenges from outside invaders.

France formed from the fall of Charlemagne's empire. Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, divided his empire, one section for each of his first three sons according to Frankish custom (Jones 1994, 72). To summarize, the three sons fought upon his death leading to the Battle of Fontenoy in 841 and the Oaths of Strasbourg in 842 (Jones 1994, 337; Hall 1953; 317). The Oaths of Strassbourg are important because they were one of the first examples of written Romance French and show evidence of the cultural and linguistic divisions between East and West Francia already emerging (Hall 1953, 321). In the Treaty of Verdun, the Empire was divided among the three sons, leading to the creation of West Francia, Middle Francia, and East Francia (Jones 1994, 48). Middle Francia remained a contentious territory and disintegrated as East and West Francia grappled for power (Jones 1994 69). The Carolingian Dynasty had to overcome many obstacles --Charlemagne relied on church authority when he was coronated thus his (and his descendants) hold over the territory was circumscribed by the Church (Jones 1994, 64). Early Carolingian kings were also elected by nobility and thus depended on nobility for support in their war campaigns against the Vikings (Jones 1994, 71-74). West Francia remained highly decentralized throughout the middle ages.

The kingdom of England was not the result of disintegration, but rather the integration of several independent kingdoms. The Heptarchy included East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex (White 1967, 31). During the Heptarchy, Mercia declined to lead to the increased power of Wessex which subsequently absorbed the kingdoms Sussex and Kent (White 1967, 32-33). In 871 Alfred the Great retook London from the Vikings and all English people (except those under Danish rule) submitted to Alfred the Great (White 1967, 34). During this time, Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the Norwegians and the English, until it was taken by England in 954 (White 1967, 34). After the integration of Northumbria, England would remain unified (though the Swedes invaded and ruled briefly)(White 1967, 35).

France and England underwent very different political transformations in the 9th and 10th centuries. The unification of England was facilitated by the heroism of Alfred the Great and by the work of missionaries who converted the diverse population under a single faith(White 1967, 34). The need for a strong leader was caused by the invasion of the Danes along with the rising influence of Wessex allowed Alfred the Great to unify England. Francia was more geographically diverse; the border between France and Germany would constantly move due to war and treaties. The reliance on the nobility and the church made centralization in France more difficult. The Frankish custom of dividing lands among sons led to rivalries and thus more division in France. Furthermore, the invasions of the Vikings, (and the siege of Paris in 885) made it difficult for the Frankish king to rally support among clergy and nobility (Jones 1994, 71). Political fragmentation in France would continue until the advent of the absolute monarchs in the 1500s (Jones 1994, 154). All of these factors led to the different formation histories of the Holy Roman states, England and France.

Bibliography

Hall Jr., Robert A. "The Oaths of Strassburg: Phonemics and Classification." Language 29, no. 3 (1953): 317-321.

Jones, Colin. The Cambridge illustrated history of France. 1. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

White, Reginald James. "Saxon England." In A short history of England. Cambridge: University Press, 1967. 25-40