History of World Societies

1. After World War II Both Western Europe and Japan struggled to provide for their citizens and rebuild their societies. Massive amounts of aid from the United States would be important in the recovery of both countries but the key elements of economic recovery would be different for each. While Western Europe focused on strengthening the social security net and opening its markets to foreign trade Japan focused on more protectionist policies to protect their industries and to streamline communication between different sectors of their economy. Both paths would lead to unprecedented prosperity in the post-war years.

American aid was important for recovery in Western Europe, but more important was the revivalism of democratic reform. Leaders such as Alcide de Gasperi in Italy and Konrad Audenauer worked hard to instate the free-market (McKay 946-947). Socialists who had fought Hitler also emerged with more influence leading to more social reforms (McKay946). These reforms included increased unemployment benefits, state-run health care systems, and better pensions in order to provide for the poor and unemployed (McKay 947). Western European nations also sought to end protectionism and create a larger unified market (McKay 948). Jean Monet became a successful architect of this idea in 1957 when the Common Market was established. Its goal was to integrate the steel and coal production of all of Western Europe and eventually it included Belgium, France, West Germany, Britain, the Netherlands and Luxembourg among its members (McKay 948). The opening of European markets and the establishment of cooperation between different European nations led to prosperity in the post-war years.

American occupation left Japan's extensive bureaucracy alone, allowing it to establish many important economic and social reforms (McKay 966). In the 1950s Japan established a policy of 'managed capitalism' where the government decided which industries were important and made loans out to bolster them (McKay 966). Cultural attitudes towards work and business led to different policies; Anti-trust laws were scrapped because Big Business was valued and respected (McKay 966). Unions became partners with business and worked cooperatively with businesses to watch out for worker's interests (McKay 967). This resulted in higher standards of living for the average Japanese family and led to an economic boom in Japan. Overall protectionist policies preventing foreign competitors in the Japanese market allowed Japan to thrive.

Different economic paths, free-trade in Europe and protectionism in Japan led to economic prosperity in both countries. This prosperity was important because it allowed these different regions to resist the influence of Soviet Russia and Communist China.

3. The Communist Cultural Revolution in China, while establishing equality did not efficiently reform food distribution and production during Mao's tenure. The backlash against the party led to a shift towards more right-wing policies (McKay 981). After Mao's death, Deng Xiaoping established a set of new reforms called the 'Four Modernizations ' which included reforms in agriculture, science-technology industry and national defense (McKay 981). Through these reforms, Deng led China into the world as a market-oriented economy.

One of Deng's reforms was to restructure farming by allowing small families to cultivate smaller plots of land rather than in collective plots creating individual initiative among the small farmers (McKay 981). This increased agricultural yield by almost 50 percent and led to further economic experimentation (McKay 982). This included opening the country to foreign investors to build factories and exporting goods around the world (McKay 982). Leaders in China also enlisted the expertise of businessmen in Hong Kong and Taiwan to guide China in the world market and also to take advantage of cheap Chinese labor (McKay 982).

These economic reforms did not in any way lead to political liberalization. When people demonstrated at Tiananmen Square, they were crushed by tanks and footage of the event was erased from the rest of the world (McKay 382). The lack of respect for human rights has led to worldwide protest against 'politically communist China' (McKay 983).

While reforms were made in agriculture and industry, accompanying reforms in political rights were not allowed. The opening of borders has led to some innovation in science and technology, but overall the main changes in the 'four modernizations movement involved agriculture and industry.

6. Apartheid, the name was given to the systematic segregation and disenfranchisement of non-white groups by the white majority, originated in the colonial rule of the Dutch (Afrikaners) and later the British. The system evolved under white supremacist ideas established by the Afrikaners' National Party (McKay 1026). The system of apartheid could not continue to exist once foreign pressure, as well as political chaos, ensued.

The Afrikaans ruled with the British cooperatively, but nationalist Afrikaners wished to eradicate all British influence in politics and created a racist platform of segregation and white majority rule in order to win complete control of the government (McKay 1026). In 1913 the South African government passed the Native Land Act which restricted black ownership of land to the native reserves (which is 1/7th of the total land) (McKay 1026). Populations of migrant black workers were forced to work on mines and in factories in order to feed themselves since there was not enough land to feed the black majority (McKay 1026). In 1948 the Nationalist Party succeeded in eliminating British influence and as a result passed strict segregation laws that divided the country into four distinct races: black, white, Asian and colored (mixed race)(McKay 1026). The goals of these rules were to ensure racial purity as well as to maintain the privileges of the white minority (McKay 1026). Specialized government and management positions were excluded from non-whites; a settlement in the new modern cities was reserved for white families (McKay 1026).

This, however, did not stop black nationalists from resisting. Black nationalists established the African National Congress (ANC), which set up outposts abroad as well as 'an underground army of opposition' led by Nelson Mandela (McKay 1026). When Mandela was captured was forced to turn to armed tactics (McKay 1026). The South African government responded harshly through military efforts of its own and succeeded. In the flush of success, the National Party enacted new legislation to allow Asian and colored people a limited franchise but did not extend the same right to blacks (McKay 1027). This provoked a backlash as black militants started attacking black civil servants (McKay 1027). These armed clashes were televised and the world protested the injustice done to the black majority of South Africa (McKay 1027). The United States and Common Market established economic sanctions against South Africa (McKay 1027). Finally, the election of Afrikaner President Fredrick de Klerk opened negotiations between the South African government and the ANC (McKay 1027). Nelson Mandela was freed and de Klerk agreed to universal suffrage as well as security for the white minority. In the election of 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected president with De Klerk as vice president (McKay 1027).

The establishment of apartheid was laid down by years of prejudice and white supremacist ideas; however, it could not succeed in completely repressing the black majority of South Africa due to internal turmoil and outside political pressure. However, the systematic oppression of the black majority has still left scars on South African society and it will take years of social and economic reform to change this.

Work Cited

McKay, John P. A history of world societies. 9th ed. Boston, Mass.: Bedford/St. Martins, 2012. Print.