The Influence of Nineteenth-Century Thought on the Writings of John Stuart Mill

In his 1859 work On Liberty, British philosopher John Stuart Mill asserts that individuality should be the foundational value of society. Holding that leaders do not possess the right to restrict the liberties of the ruled, Mill asserts that promoting freedoms and eliminating outdated social mores will produce the best outcomes for society. While Mill’s work serves as a unique contribution to nineteenth-century thought, his writings also are a reflection of his time. Labeling the movements that defined his century as a new “Spirit of the Age,” Mill recognized that the values he proposed were already embodied by the popular sentiments of his time. The key traits that characterized the nineteenth century and influenced Mill’s works included increased political liberties, the support of economic liberalization, and the promotion of societal reforms. In combination, these three traits dominated nineteenth-century thought and enabled the century to progress on the political and social reforms of the previous century.

The nineteenth century was marked by the emergence of political philosophies that sought to increase the power of common individuals over the elite. As the first manifestation of this principle, nineteenth-century nationalism asserted the right of self-determination for various ethnic groups. Prior to the century, many rulers forced individuals of various ethnicities to live under a single ruler. For example, in the Austrian Empire, Germans, Magyars, and Slavs formed the biggest ethnic groups, yet they were forced to live under a state that favored the Czech minority (Hunt 703). Further, the division of the Italians under several kingdoms motivated nationalist movements led by Giuseppe Mazzini (703). In Eastern Europe, the Polish formed nationalist movement in an effort to combat the oppressive rule of Russia (703). Emerging wherever an oppressed group desired self-rule, nationalism was among the earliest mass movements to consider the interests of average subjects.

Along with appeals to ethnicity, many nineteenth-century movements focused on the political power of the individual. Influenced by seventeenth-century philosopher John Locke, the political ideology of liberalism supported a political framework that valued individual liberties and political freedoms (705). Liberals asserted that a constitution should be established as a means of securing the individual freedoms of individuals in a society (705). Mill’s conception of liberty is compatible with the tenets of liberal ideology. Observing the trends of history, Mill writes in On Liberty that the struggle between liberty and authority is a driving force in history (Mill 1). Yet, he also cautions against purely democratic forms of government, arguing that the tyranny of the majority has also led to the suppression of individual rights throughout history (4-5). Holding a similar stance to liberals, Mill also asserted that rulers did not possess the right to limit certain rights, such as the right to free speech, because they were not infallible and did not possess the authority to make sound decisions on behalf of society (20). Mill’s support of specific individual rights and admonishments of pure democracy resemble the constitutional government advocated by nineteenth-century liberals.

The economic system of the nineteenth century was perhaps one of the largest targets for critique and reform. During the eighteenth century, the Industrial Revolution in England transformed the economic landscape of western European states (Hunt 686). However, it was not until the early nineteenth century that industrialism began to rapidly expand across the continent and lead to the fast growth of urban areas (686). The initiatives of many private individuals contributed to the success of industrialism, which resulted in widespread respect for capitalist initiative. For example, in England, liberalism enabled several inventors to obtain the resources necessary to develop the inventions that enabled industrialism to occur, such as the steam engine and multi-spool spinning wheels (687). Because of the successes produced by entrepreneurship and capitalism, economic liberalism was viewed to be equally important to political liberalism during the nineteenth century.

In his work, Mill also expresses his support for economic liberalism. As Mill argues, free trade is the only moral economic arrangement (Mill 110). As Mill states, free trade is indispensable to the concept of personal liberty (110). The goods and services that an individual sells are an extension of him or herself, and thus the individual should be allowed to freely make business arrangements (110). Further, Mill argues that imposed restrictions on trade are inherently evil because they place a restraint upon the individual (110). Just as the government is not qualified to restrain the political expressions of an individual, it is also not qualified to restrain the economic activities of the individual (110). Tying political liberalism to economic liberalism, Mill asserts that government should not interfere with private business because no bureaucracy is qualified to provide the insight and knowledge that the individual business owner would possess (127). Like many individuals during the nineteenth century, Mill expresses shared awe of the successes brought by the Industrial Revolution and support of liberal economic policies.

The political and economic transformations of the nineteenth century inevitably ushered in social change throughout Europe. With the growth of cities and the rise of the middle class, more Europeans were able to congregate to discuss their dissatisfaction with social elements of industrial life (Hunt 697). As a result, many common assumptions about morality and human conduct were under question. During the period, women began to fill prominent roles in charitable organizations, which contradicted the traditional belief that women should fill domestic roles (697). In an attempt to increase church participation, Protestant and Catholic organizations attempted to reach out to urban residents by offering Sunday schools and charity services (699). However, the attempts of a religious organization to rally against social ills, such as alcohol consumption and promiscuity, led to social conflicts (699). Further, many advocates called for compulsory education in order to improve the prospects of the poor and curtail the abuses of child labor (699). Yet, because many poor families relied on the income generated from their children, families were hesitant to send their children to school (699). As these conflicts demonstrate, industrialization highlighted the need for social reforms to accommodate thedrastic change in the structures of society.

While promoting his concept of liberty, Mill also comments upon many of the social tensions that were present during the nineteenth century. First, Mill is especially critical of religion and the role of traditional religious morals in society. Mill describes his century as, “destitute of faith, but terrified of scepticism [sic]” (25). He posits that society is fearful of abandoning beliefs that may be beneficial (25). Yet, Mill argues that Christian virtues are not beneficial because they promote passive obedience that “inculcates submission to authorities” (56). Thus, Mill believes that rejecting religious values and following one’s individual inclinations over custom is a necessary step in promoting individualism in society (68). Further, while Mill asserts that society has the right to prevent self-destructive behavior, such as alcohol abuse or idleness, it can only do so when an individual’s action places the whole of society at risk (113). Further, Mill rejects state-operated compulsory education because its goal is to mold students in a uniform fashion, which undermines individuality (123). As Mill’s reflections on cultural matters indicate, Mill believes that the concepts of individualism and liberty should be given heavy consideration when assessing social matters.

The promotion of individual liberty by Mill and other nineteenth-century thinkers is an extension of the reforms that took place during the previous century. During the eighteenth century, improvements in agricultural methods led to the development of urban centers and the development of a middle class (Hunt 561). Further, the Enlightenment introduced many of the philosophical principles that formed the basis of liberal ideology (576). Enlightenment thinkers also set the foundation for skepticism, which paved the way for the concepts of freedom of speech and freedom of thought advocated by liberals (567). Finally, the French Revolution overthrew feudalism in France and promoted the concepts of freedom and equality as the foundation for the government (676). In consideration of these eighteenth-century developments, the “Spirit of the Age” described by Mill can be viewed as a progression of the extension of freedom in society rather than a radical break from the past.

The advent of political liberalism contributed to the economic growth of the Industrial Revolution as well as rapid social changes in rapidly industrializing societies. The success of the Industrial Revolution in producing a prosperous middle class and increasing living standards for many contributed to the growth of liberal ideology. Many nineteenth thinkers held that the respect of individual rights should serve as the foundation of political institutions, economic arrangements, and social reforms. In his signature work On Liberty Mill conforms to the “Spirit of the Age” by also promoting the rights of individuals in society. Extending upon the transformations that were rooted in the eighteenth century, Mill joins his contemporaries in advocating for the progression of individual rights and the reduction of the power of elites over society.

Works Cited

Hunt, Lynn Avery. The making of the west: peoples and cultures. 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. Print.

Mill, John S. On liberty. Ed. Charles W. Elliot. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc, 2004. Print.