Information Systems: Project Management Processes

1. Computer and information systems managers often called information technology managers or IT project managers, plan, coordinate, and direct computer-related activities in an organization. They are expected to understand circuit boards, processors, chips, electronic equipment, and computer hardware and software, including applications and programming (Computer and Information Systems Managers, 2010). IS personnel are responsible for handling the technology needs within an organization. This may include software programming issues as well as hardware issues. Information technology is often responsible for recommending systems upgrades, which will include providing a business case. Often IS will facilitate training. This involves having great interpersonal skills, because often the interaction involves all levels of staff, from the president to the administrative assistant. Understanding the computer hardware and its overall programming is necessary to be successful as an IS professional. In addition, understanding industry-specific software packages will help an organization run smoothly. IS must constantly be aware of changes in technology and understand the limits of current technology. Often the overall investment in technology is staggering; therefore, it is important to make sure the available technology is used to its fullest potential. Many times only certain modules of implemented software systems are actually used.

2. Information systems are used for overall planning and strategy by offering solutions for integrating technology in every business area. Information Systems Engineers must choose the best technology to meet the business needs of the organization. The information systems chosen must work with top-level decision-makers to help define the overall goal of a business or business unit. Because IS incorporates the building of technology models unique to a business structure and industry, a savvy IS manager can facilitate how the interpretation of data and the different inputs in an electronic system can meet the projected outcomes. An IS manager keeps current on technology changes that may impact how quickly data is processed and interpreted. When major business changes are made, such as adding a new department or a merger or acquisition, the IS manager offers services that help facilitate new business needs through the effective use of technology. An efficiently run IS department makes full use of available resources and technology. IS managers keep the lines of communication open with decision-makers to make sure the expected results are met or exceeded. The collaboration aspect of the IS professional requires good communication skills and the ability to work with a team of professionals who may or may not be technology experts but contribute important information and viewpoints (Kroenke, 2009).

3. The five main components of an information systems are: people, who facilitate the application of the system; procedures, which are necessary to ensure the protocol is followed; software programs, designed to fit the business needs of an organization, for example, QuickBooks for a small business; hardware, the actual computer system; and finally, data, the information entered into the computer system (Information Technology, the Internet and You, 2008). The human resource element of an information system cannot be overemphasized, particularly, the support staff. Following clear guidelines and procedures are especially important for an information systems environment. Checks and balances must be put in place to ensure that proper procedures are being followed. The software must be carefully chosen to suit well-defined business needs. Likewise, appropriately sized hardware must be chosen, so resources aren’t wasted and under-powered systems do not slow down critical business functions. IS management must ensure that the data is as free from human error as possible.

4. An MIS course will teach a student how to build an Information System appropriate for any business. The student will be trained technically and will learn critical business management and personal skills important for success in the business world (MIS Courses, 2014). It will also prepare a student to be successful in almost any industry because certain theories and practices are universal and can be adapted to any business environment. MIS experts can offer solutions by integrating technology with a company’s business model. The knowledge of technology in concert with business principles and practices is a winning combination. Instead of hiring two people, one for business development, and another for computer technology, an MIS professional can facilitate both, which will result in more focused solutions. They understand technology can be used for competitive advantage and how MIS can affect technology, information security, and facilitate electronic commerce.

5. Some of the challenges with changing processes include the overall cost of new systems, training of personnel, and t implementation, which will most likely involve running two systems in parallel for a period of time. Integrating a new system can have temporary drawbacks, but most are critical to organizations who want to go to the next level. Often decisions are made without fully understanding the scope of issues to be addressed. The importance of fully examining the old system and understanding what is not working cannot be overstressed. Short-term and long-term goals must be discussed and be strategically viewed before the implementation process begins. Budgets are always a critical component of any new technology upgrade, especially when going from a manual system to an automated one. Usually, this is where many companies get into trouble. It is best to look at similar situations to adjust costs and be prepared to go over budget. Budgeting should include the cost of operating two systems simultaneously. A decision must be made about how long to maintain the legacy system. It is better to overestimate the completion date and then look great when it doesn’t take as long. As with any implementation, either additional staff will be needed or current staff will be expected to work additional hours (Information Technology, the Internet and You, 2008).

6. Michael Porter developed a five forces model: buyer power; supplier power; the threat of substitution; competitive rivalry; and the threat of new entry. Buyer power relates to those that purchase your product. The more buyers, the greater the flexibility to increase or decrease price according to profit and other business goals. However, businesses that have a niche market for their products are more vulnerable to the whims of their buyers. Supplier power is the number of vendors supplying the product needed. The smaller the supplier pool, the more cost will increase. Sometimes a company cannot control supplier availability; however, there are several ways to negotiate an agreement that works for both parties. The threat of substitution means that the consumer or user has found another product that works better. For example, a manual pencil sharpener is replaced by an electric one. Competitive rivalry addresses who has the best product and the best price. The business must have something that differentiates their product from their competitors. Competitive strategies involve changing the price of an item, changing the nuances of the product or service by differentiating its characteristics, changing how the product or service reaches the end-user, and utilizing current business relationships to achieve an edge over competitors. Finally, the threat of new entry refers to more competition or the introduction of new technologies in the market (Porter's Five Forces, 2010).

7. Process management is necessary because it enables a business organization to operate efficiently and successfully. Process management helps to facilitate the overall goal of the business organizations. Systems are designed in such a way that the possibilities of human mistakes are diminished. The three elements of process management are: vertical, meaning that the tasks are more specific; horizontal, which are directed towards technology and how to use it, where a full-service process management team handles all aspects including “process discovery and project scoping; modeling and design; business rules engine; workflow engine, and simulation and testing” (Computer and Information Systems Managers, 2010). It aligns the Information Systems Manager with all areas of a business. It also answers the question of how to collaborate with decision-makers within an organization and why it is important. Process management discovers how technology can be used as a competitive advantage in a business setting and understands how it can improve security and smooth the progress of business goals and objectives. The horizontal element of process management focuses specifically on technology and its relationship to a specific process to be accomplished or improved. A full-service process management team will be able to incorporate all aspects and be able to present a full-scope business plan and model.

8. The challenge of systems development is complicated by the possibility that the system may not even be completed. Often unforeseen challenges arise, such as increased hardware cost, human resources expenses, and technology shifts in the market place, which changes the initial scope of the project and may result in exceeding the original budget by 200 to 300 percent. Also, projects may be completed within budget but do not meet the set goals. It is often difficult to gauge the full requirements of a system due to a lack of initial information available or not fully understanding the needs of the organization. Because business goals and directions change, the requirements may change midstream, which impedes the process and progress of implementation. (Xiong, 2008) The importance of fully examining the old system and understanding what is not working cannot be overstressed. Short-term and long-term goals must be discussed before the implementation process begins. Budgets are always a critical component of any new technology upgrade, especially when moving from a manual system to an automated one. Usually, this is where many companies get into trouble. It is best to look at similar situations to adjust costs and have a generous budget contingency.

9. Business processes exist so that an organization can run efficiently. The departmental process includes cross-functional or cross-departmental elements because they support the entire business, also called process-based systems. This type of system is designed not only to meet the needs of just one department but to incorporate the activities of the entire organization. The enterprise processes of a business not only integrate different departments under one unified platform, but it integrates existing systems by making software layers that can join their data and applications to each other. And enterprise system is truly versatile; it encompasses the entire cycle of the business flow, from collecting customer data, managing payroll, reimbursing expenses, and accounting related requirements. These processes are complex and almost always require in-house IS management. An IS professional will be efficient in all business processes. These are systems that operate in various capacities. Process-based systems are the most efficient for the business needs of today. They are positioned to integrate, digest, and facilitate data to produce specific and unique output for businesses that are looking for ways to manipulate data in order to manage their goals and objectives more efficiently (Kroenke, 2009).

10. An Enterprise Resource System (ERP) includes five significant elements. First and foremost are the people, your project team. These consultants are ingrained into an organization’s business structure and goals; they understand it, and what the objectives are. The project team should spend time interviewing and shadowing employees, not only upper-level management but also those who will use the new technology and are currently experts in old technology. The next element is domain knowledge. Since these systems are designed to automate back-office operations, then superior knowledge of the industry will help consultants to make good business decisions. The third element is to make sure that the expectations are realistic and well defined. The business must have a defined business plan and goal so that the consultant implementing the technology will understand the directive. Communication between all involved is critical. The fourth element is the dexterity. This is the process of staying abreast of decisions made because of redefined goals and objectives. The time invested in deploying an ERP is significant, as are the costs. Therefore, close attention must be paid to industry swings and adjustments that may make the system obsolete or not meet the necessary challenges. The final element is change management, which is honing in on the training needs of the business to ensure that the end-users are securely grounded in what they need to know to use the new technology appropriately (Five Elements of a Successful ERP Implementation, 2011).

11. A wired Local Area Network (LAN) includes at least six required components. Online technology resources pcmag.com and smallbusiness.com list them as the components:

a. Network adaptor: A printed circuit board that plugs into the bus of both user machines (clients) and servers in a local area network (LAN). Also commonly called a "network interface card" (NIC) or "LAN card," the network adapter transmits data onto the network and receives data from the network. It works at the data link protocol level.

b. Network medium: The physical channel used for transmission in the network. Copper wire, fiber, and air are the three media.

c. Cable Connector: In wired networks, the most common form of the connector is the RJ45. Every computer with networking capabilities has an RJ45 port. This is sometimes called a "network port" or an "Ethernet port." The RJ45 plug looks like a slightly larger telephone plug and connects the Unshielded Twisted Pair or the Shielded Twisted Pair cable.

d. Power Supply: A transformer converts AC current from the wall outlet into the DC currents required by electronic circuits. A computer power supply converts AC into multiple DC voltages. For example, 12 volts are commonly used for drives, while 3.3v and 5v are used by the chips and other motherboard components.

e. Hub/Switch/Router: In wired networks, one computer cannot connect to many others without some form of the splitter. A hub is little more than a splitter. It repeats any signals coming into one of its ports sending them out to all its other ports. A cable leads from each port to one computer. A switch is a more sophisticated version of a hub. It only sends the signal to the computer with the address encoded in the arriving message. Routers are much more complicated and are able to forward messages all over the world.

f. Network Software: Software on communicating computer packages data into segments and puts that data into a structure called a "packet." The source and destination addresses of the packet are written into the header of the packet. The receiving computer needs to interpret these packets back into meaningful data and deliver it to the appropriate application. (Six Required Components of a LAN, 2013; Encyclopedia, 2013)

11. A LAN protocol sets the parameters that computers use to communicate on a network. The major protocols are Ethernet, which is the physical element and pertains to the length of the cable and determines the speed of the connection; the IP and IPX (Network Layer), which directs or routes data packets of information sent over a network; TCP and SPX (Transport Layer), which concerns the efficient and reliability of transporting data between networks; HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application Layers), which are commonly used protocols for email messages sent over the internet, deciphering network address, and generally all the activity used in electronic commerce (Chapter 2: Protocol, 2013).

12. Cloud-based hosting uses internet accessed servers instead of in-house servers. The implementation of cloud-based hosting is fairly uncomplicated since companies can retain their applications and processes. A great feature is that staff can access information from anywhere, anytime. This is advantageous for companies that promote telecommuting. Furthermore, there are no hardware purchases involved, and overhead technology costs are reduced; someone else is responsible for overseeing downtime and network reliability. Adding to applications and specialized software is easier, and cloud-based hosting usually processes data faster. One of the downsides is the security of data, a huge consideration. Also, one must ask, is the system reliable, and will it perform as expected? Will cloud-based hosting deliver as promised regarding accessibility and, based on how frequently changes are upgraded, will the cost actually be more efficient? When comparing cloud-based hosting to in-house hosting, the huge disadvantage is the susceptibility to data breaches. In-house hosting may be more expensive. Not only are the costs of hardware considerable, but also IT human resource expenses are incurred. The three major factors that help to make cloud computing possible are the reduced cost of hardware, the advent of super-computers, and the increased use of Web 2.0 applications (Advantages and Disadvantages of Cloud Computing, 2012).

13. As the world moves toward social media, it is crucial that businesses capitalize on this phenomenon to promote brand awareness, services, and products. Not understanding the importance of social media will leave many dollars on the table, or in someone else’s pocket. It may be necessary, depending on the industry, to have staff devoted to social media and internet marketing. As an IT professional charged with facilitating social media, business platforms should be built to make the media outlets easily accessible. Because everyone may not be technologically savvy, it is the responsibility of the IT professional to investigate all the social media outlets and help decide which ones best suit the needs of the firm. Since the competition is so fierce in this arena, social networking sites should be unique and interactive and should provide a competitive advantage. The design elements must hone in on the needs of the user. Sufficient market research is necessary to make sure the promotions, emails, and blog entries will guide the consumer to act. The IT professional can offer opportunities to build in email alerts for keywords and phrases and trending information pertaining to the industry served. Social media is a significant marketing tool (Ecommerce Realized, 2013).

14. Ethics in an organization can be defined in several ways especially if its culture and technology are cutting edge. Can the business take advantage of virtual meeting technology? Ethics in IS has many challenges in managing e-commerce, which includes highly sensitive customer account information and sensitive email correspondence. Businesses may need to monitor personal email usage and web browsing. To discourage web browsing many firms have limited the availability of websites they deem inappropriate for the workplace. Personal information is an enormous consideration, and privacy laws are in place, such as the Privacy Act of 1974, and in the medical field, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA). However, these leave a huge void regarding making people feel comfortable that their information is safe. Organizations have put common sense procedures in place to secure log-in and password information. Smart Cards have a magnetic strip with significant personal data and also require a personal identification number (PIN). Another security feature is biometric authentication, which uses a person’s unique, physical characteristics, such as a fingerprint. Many large corporations have several sign-on points for the staff. A separate password and user identification are required in order to access multiple module systems. Wireless systems are private and code is required for use. There are many other protocols in place; however, the rule of thumb is to be cautious when sharing sensitive information (Kroenke, 2009).

15. Outsourcing in the manufacturing industry began over thirty years ago. Today’s products and services that are outsourced leave nothing to the imagination. Large audit firms, insurance, and telecommunication companies, and others have closely reviewed the pros and cons of outsourcing. For many, the advantages are overwhelmingly in favor of it. This created the need for technology-based service organizations whose focus is on providing these external services. Some of the advantages of moving in this direction are the associated cost. By outsourcing, development costs can be reduced by 30%, and the end result is better. The in-house IT options are too extensive. Since outsourcing brings a higher level of technology, a positive impact that can place a firm in a greater strategic position. Outsourcing will also allow the focus to stay on core business improvements. Finally, the opportunity to learn about advancements from the selected vendor will ultimately improve the overall understanding of technology, helping to make better business decisions in the future. The disadvantage of outsourcing is that the vendor used may not fully understand the business and therefore make the relationship more painstaking and time-consuming. Statistics show that many firms do not renew outsourcing agreements. The door is also open to losing control over the project by not having it in-house. Communication with the vendor is an acknowledged problem. This is especially the case when the outsourcer is from another culture (Tesler, 2014).

16. E-commerce allows for products and services to be sold over the internet. E-commerce developed along with the popularity of computers. In 1991 E-commerce became a possibility when the Internet was made available for commercial use. In 1994 the proper security protocols were put in place for the lighting fast growth of a buy and sell market (Information Technology, the Internet and You, 2008). In a culture where more and more socialization is taking place in the comfort of people’s homes, this has led to geometric growth in E-commerce. The elephant in the room, of course, is Amazon.com. Its success story has been the catalyst for other giant on-line retailers such as E-bay. It also spawned growth in retail businesses that initially only had brick and mortar locations. Target, J.C. Penny, and Macy’s are just a few of the giant retailers that have an on-line retail website. Moreover, on-line marketing helped set the stage for small businesses to create a credible on-line, retail presence. E-commerce meets the needs of consumers in the twenty-first century by adjusting how it does business. This meant that many participants needed to get on board, such as the U.S. Post Office, Fed-Ex, and other same day and next day shipping companies. These help to increase some of a company’s profit margins because they offer competitive pricing (Information Technology, the Internet and You, 2008).

17. Not one-hundred percent, fail-safe ways can completely protect an organization’s security. However, an organization should always have a plan in place to protect itself against unwanted technology intruders and system compromises. This cannot be overstressed, given recent breaches of information with huge retailers such as Target. A business should have an off-site data back-up recovery system. Kroenke recommends, “Locate infrastructure in a safe location. Identify mission-critical systems. Identify resources needed to run those systems. Prepare remote backup facilities. Train and rehearse (2009, p. 483). If a system has been compromised, do not wait until something happens before developing a response plan. An incident response plan should already be in place. Similar to a fire drill, all the fire marshals have been pre-selected, and the safe place is already designated. Similar guidelines should be in place. Make sure that the reporting is centralized; everyone knows who the go-to-person is at the organization. Determine if possible, what the response or remedy is and act on it quickly (Kroenke, 2009). If something happens, the chain of response must be clearly predetermined. This helps to expedite the solution.

18. Of the three primary sources of security threats, human errors and mistakes are usually unintentional. They can range from physically spilling coffee on computer hardware causing it to malfunction to entering incorrect data. The second threat is, unfortunately, malicious human activity. This type of threat is intentional. It can be a disgruntled employee, who may share sensitive information, or a staffer who is planning to leave a firm and destroys or compromises data in retaliation. Computer hackers, for a variety of reasons social and economic, cannot be discounted. The third threat, similar to the first one, is natural security threats. This includes disruptive weather events, such as the unusually cold, snowy, and icy winter of 2014. Five types of security-related losses usually result from these various security threats. The first is unauthorized data disclosure, most often because of human error, when someone unintentionally shares sensitive information. The second is incorrect data modification, whether unintentional and intentional human error. The former is when a staff misinterprets procedures or data and the end result is a misstatement of information. The later is the result of a person who hacks a system, such as a banking computer, to manipulate data for financial gain. Procedures should be put in place to minimize these errors. The third is attributed to faulty service. This is when the expected outcomes of a system are not met for a variety of reasons. The fourth security threat is when service is denied, which means that the end-user is unable to access the system, whether accidental or purposely. The fifth threat is the loss of infrastructure. The system has been physically compromised or damaged (Kroenke, 2009).

References

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