An Analysis of Executive Functions and their Role in Daily Life

Introduction

The ability to remain organized and self-regulate behavior is a critical need in modern society. With the amount of information required to function effectively ever-increasing, people must be able to effectively process this information so that it can be used to help plan and organize one's daily life. Psychologists refer to this ability as executive functioning and can have a tremendous impact on peoples' happiness and general success. The purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of the concept of executive functioning, and how this mental process influences various life activities. Background information will first be provided, including a more detailed description of executive functioning and its role in psychology research. The significance of executive functioning will then be considered, particularly emphasizing its impact on life skills. Assessment issues will then be explored, followed by a discussion on how executive functioning can be improved with practice. Finally, life skills strengthening exercises will be discussed, emphasizing the specific influence of executive functioning strategies. This paper will conclude with a summary and outline of key points. 

Background

The term "executive functions" is used to describe the regular pattern of cognitive activities that direct our most basic activities (Metlzer, 2011). These processes include memory storage, planning, organizational skills, selective attention, motor functioning, and a range of other activities that require cognitive self-regulation (Metlzer, 2011). Executive skills, or the executive system, pertain to the governing set of operations that guides subsequent, more finite, processes (Metlzer, 2011). Believed to be predominantly housed within the prefrontal cortex, more recent research (i.e., Spielberg et al., 2011) has determined that executive functioning requires activation of the dorsolateral, anterior, and orbitofrontal regions as well. As with executive functions, the term "executive functioning spectrum" has been used by researchers to describe the range of skills and abilities that are contained within these areas of the brain (Spielberg et al., 2011). While researchers have not yet identified all the potential cognitive processes that are controlled within this system, the spectrum can be thought of as an umbrella term that describes any form of cognitive self-regulation (Spielberg et al., 2011). Executive functions are critical to guiding behavior and decision-making during all stages of life (Spielberg et al., 2011). 

Executive functions can generally be classified into two broad categories, including organization and regulation. As their names suggest, organizational executive functions include the ability to process information and use it to plan future actions, whereas regulation pertains to the ability to control or change behavior based on information gathered from the environment (Metlzer, 2011). For example, controlling one's laughter in a classroom setting is an example of executive self-regulation. Conversely, the ability to relay one's thoughts to another and maintain a conversation represents an organizational ability (Meltzer, 2011). 

Research regarding the role of executive functions in daily life began to emerge in the mid-20th century and has increased markedly over the past decade (Metlzer, 2011). Whereas early studies sought to differentiate between automatic and self-regulated mental processes, more recent studies are aimed at identifying critical areas of the brain that govern specific executive actions (Barkley, 2012). For example, exploring the impact of brain lesions and traumatic brain injuries on cognitive processes has led researchers to understand how various areas of the brain work in conjunction to control mental processes such as problem solving and task switching (Barkley, 2012). Additionally, neuroimaging studies have begun to identify ways in which executive functioning develops over time (Barkley, 2012). According to Bernier, Carlson, and Whipple (2010), the ability to self-regulate is largely an environmentally derived skill that stems from effective parenting strategies during early childhood. However, there is evidence to support the role of both genetics and the environment in determining one's executive functioning abilities (Barkley, 2012). 

An additional topic that has garnered attention in recent studies has been the identification of intervention strategies and exercises for improving executive functioning over time. As the brain maintains a high degree of plasticity, it is believed that executive functioning is predominantly learned, rather than inherited genetically (Barkley, 2012). Therefore, researchers have begun to develop programs for improving specific executive functions in those who struggle with skills such as reading, attention (ADHD), and learning (Barkley, 2012). The efficacy of these interventions is discussed in more detail below. 

Significance

The importance of understanding the nature of the executive functioning spectrum and its influence on daily life skills cannot be understated. Perhaps most importantly, the executive functioning is critical for learning (Metlzer, 2011). The executive functioning system governs our ability to process new information, as well as recall previously learned information (Metlzer, 2011). Additionally, the ability to plan and organize thoughts is governed within the executive functioning system, as well as the ability to portray thoughts to other individuals (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). Nearly any skills or aptitude involved in learning involves cognitive self-regulation and is governed by the executive functioning system (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). 

Conversely, individuals with executive functioning problems often experience significant learning difficulties throughout life (Barkley, 2012). These difficulties include poor working memory, lack of planning, poor organizational skills, and limited attention skills (Barkley, 2012). Clearly, a lack of executive functioning skills limits a child's ability to learn at a normal rate, and individuals with such problems often fall behind academically (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). If undetected, executive functioning problems persist into adulthood, and executive functioning impairments can impact one's ability to gain and maintain employment, function independently, or maintain healthy social relationships (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). Specifically, individuals with organizational executive functioning problems have difficulty keeping track of time, planning and keeping a daily schedule, and learning new skills (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Individuals who have limited self-regulation skills may have trouble in social situations or suffer from addictive behaviors such as overeating and substance abuse (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Depression, attention deficit disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and most learning disabilities can all be traced to the executive functioning system (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). Head trauma and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's, can also disrupt the executive functioning system and lead to organizational and self-regulation problems (Diamond & Lee, 2011). 

Assessment

Problems with executive functioning are generally detected during early childhood, as they are manifested in traditional learning disorders or behavioral problems such as A.D.D. (Metlzer, 2011). There is currently debate as to whether or not these executive functioning problems are genetic or environmental (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). However, similar executive functioning problems tend to run in families, suggesting that genetics plays at least some part in their occurrence (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010). A number of warning signs may indicate that children have executive functioning problems, such as poor planning and organization in the classroom, an inability to schedule sufficient time to complete a task, limited ability to articulate thoughts or establish relationships with peers, lack of classroom initiative, and poor ability to retain new information (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). 

In addition to these warning signs, a wide array of cognitive tests is available to assess executive functioning in children and adults. These tests vary in their instrumentation and methodology, but all seek to identify individuals' ability to perform these two basic executive functioning skills (i.e., organization and regulation). Chan, Shum, Toulopoulou, and Chen (2008) conducted a seminal review of executive functioning assessments, identifying more than 20 commonly used instruments. While the majority of these instruments were deemed efficacious for identifying specific problems and subsequent cognitive development activities, Chan and colleagues (2008) suggest that the lack of a "gold standard" has limited current understanding of executive functioning. Independent assessments such as the Stroop Test, which helps identify reaction time and attention skills, are effective for discovering specific limitations. However, Chan and colleagues (2008) contend that a more encompassing and construct-specific assessment is needed to more accurately identify executive functioning problems. According to these researchers, such an instrument would help increase the accuracy and sensitivity of current assessment efforts and may help identify executive functioning problems earlier in childhood (Chan et al., 2008). 

In some cases, neuroimaging is used to identify the source of executive functioning problems (Barkley, 2012). Neuroimaging is useful for evaluating any physical impairment in the cortex that may be influencing an individual's executive faculties (Spielberg et al., 2011). However, Chan and colleagues (2008) remind that executive functioning describes a set of behaviors and mental processes, rather than a specific and isolated disease. Therefore, it is critical that assessment focus on the behaviors instead of the underlying physiological structures that govern executive functioning (Spielberg et al., 2011). To accurately assess executive functioning, any method used must be holistic in nature and consider the level of functionality within each specific skill (Chan et al., 2008). Ideally, assessment should account for as many psychological, social, and neurological factors as possible to present an accurate depiction of an individual's executive functioning abilities (Chan et al., 2008). 

Executive functioning is assessed in young male adults in much the same way as children. A battery of age-specific instruments (e.g., BRIEF-A, adult version; Roth, Isquith, & Gioia, 2005) is available to researchers and practitioners seeking to identify executive functioning in various demographic groups. However, executive functioning problems often become more difficult to detect in adult males, as these individuals have likely adapted to any learning difficulties and developed strategies for coping with any shortcomings (Barkley, 2012). For example, behavioral symptoms of A.D.D. and A.D.H.D. often fade in adulthood although the executive difficulties associated with these disorders remain (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). Therefore, assessing executive functioning in young adult males must be holistic and encompassing of as many executive faculties as possible (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). 

Equally important to assessing executive functioning in young male adults is the evaluation of general life skills (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Whereas learning difficulties are generally the key indicators of executive problems in children, adults are more likely to experience problems with relationships and career (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Therefore, analyzing life skills can provide useful information about young males' executive skills. As with executive functioning, an array of instruments is available to evaluate life skills. It is important to combine any psychological instruments with systematic behavioral observation, interviews, and personal logs to provide an accurate portrayal of a young adult's specific cognitive needs (Diamond & Lee, 2011). 

Improving Executive Functioning

As researchers have improved their ability to identify executive functioning weaknesses, strategies for strengthening organization and self-regulation abilities and improving overall executive functioning have been adapted. Like assessment instruments, interventions and activities designed to improve executive functioning are diverse (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). Effective activities for improving these abilities include memorization, attention tasks, and social communication activities (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). Additionally, physical exercise, music training, and social engagement have also been shown to be effective for improving executive functioning in either impaired or healthy adults (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). According to Diamond and Lee (2011), interventions designed to strengthen executive functioning abilities are not significantly different. Those that are effective are individualized in nature and designed to meet the specific cognitive needs of each individual (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Additionally, creativity, adaptability, and self-discipline are essential for successfully intervening in the case of executive functioning (Diamond & Lee, 2011). Any intervention designed to improve executive functioning should combine physical, social, and psychological tasks to challenge and stimulate the learner into new cognitive developments (Diamond & Lee, 2011). 

Aerobic exercise is an intervention strategy that has gained considerable momentum in the promotion of new cognitive development (Barkley, 2012). Several recent studies (e.g., Davis et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2010) have shown that a systematic aerobic exercise program alters brain activation and positively influences executive functioning in individuals of all ages. For example, Davis and colleagues (2011) found that a structured cardiovascular exercise program was associated with increased activity in the bilateral prefrontal cortex. This increased activation correlated with improved executive functioning and performance on mathematic tasks (Davis et al., 2011). Therefore, it is evident that improving executive functioning requires a diverse set of intervention strategies that either directly or indirectly improves cortical activation. 

Life Skills Strengthening

Improving like skills in a young male adult may require a slightly different approach than that of executive functioning. Life skills require a synchronous combination of multiple executive abilities, and these abilities must be developed properly before an adult can successfully navigate the difficulties of planning and organizing one's life (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010). Any intervention aimed at improving life skills should first seek to identify executive functioning abilities and target major deficiencies before extending to more complex daily life tasks (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010). Additionally, improving life skills may involve the training of psychological coping strategies in order to divide complex activities into smaller, more manageable tasks (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010). As learners become more skilled at organizing these smaller tasks can then attempt to negotiate more difficult ones (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010). The incorporation of technology, such as computers and electronic planners, can be particularly useful for young adults struggling with organization and planning. 

One of the most critical life skills needed in young male adults is the ability to find and maintain employment. To accomplish this goal, these individuals must be able to effectively interact socially with respect to the social bonding theory, as well as focus on complex tasks for extended periods of time (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). One particular intervention that has been used successfully to accomplish this goal is the UCLA Peers Clinic (2013). This clinical helps assist adolescents make the transition into young adulthood through a structured program of social interaction, public speaking, education, and practice with adult-related life skills, such as finding employment (UCLA Peers Clinic, 2013). This program has been designed to suit individuals with executive functioning impairments, as well as those without. Additionally, the UCLA Peers Clinic (2013) has helped a wide range of students perform job interviews, interact with teachers and supervisors, and successfully interact with peers in a college environment. The UCLA Peers Clinic (2013) is one of just many holistic interventions that have found success in improving the life skills of young adults. 

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has also proved to be efficacious in improving the life skills of young adults (Cicerone et al., 2011). CBT is a form of psychotherapy that is designed to target executive functioning problems through systematic and goal-oriented activities such as conceptualizing problems, acquiring new skills, training these skills, generalizing skills to broader life contexts, and maintaining these skills into adulthood (Cicerone et al., 2011). CBT is designed to meet the specific executive functioning needs of each individual and combines elements of cognitive psychology and behaviorism to produce lasting behavior change (cite). For example, a young adult who has difficulty communicating socially may be required to first restructure the way he views himself in social situations. Through identifying negative thoughts and reframing them into more positive and realistic ones, the client is likely to experience increased confidence in his social functioning (Cicerone et al., 2011). Similarly, individuals with difficult self-regulating may rely on CBT to progressively phase out addictive or inappropriate behaviors (Cicerone et al., 2011). 

As with executive functioning, it is critical that life skills interventions are holistic in nature and not limited to just one specific problem (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). There remains a paucity of literature specifically examining life skills interventions for individuals with executive functioning problems, despite increasing knowledge of how to strengthen individual executive functioning skills. However, life skills interventions that combine a range of strategies (e.g., executive functioning tasks, social skills training, aerobic exercise, CBT) are likely to have the most positive impact on young adults (Yeager & Yeager, 2013). Through consistent effort and self-discipline, young adults can experience improvements in their ability to organize, plan daily activities, find employment, manage friends and family, manage funds, achieve academic goals, and generally remain psychologically and physically healthy (Bernier, Carlson, & Whipple, 2010). 

Conclusion

The purpose of this paper was to explore the importance of understanding the executive functioning spectrum and its impact on the adaptation of life skills in young adults. Background information related to executive functioning was first provided, followed by a discussion on the significance of this concept for young adult learners. Assessment issues were then presented, including available instruments and testing methods to determine executive functioning abilities. Finally, strategies for improving both executive functioning and general life skills were evaluated. Based on the evidence presented above, it is clear that executive functioning has a profound impact on nearly all life activities. The ability to find a job, maintain a relationship, or manage one's schedule all depends on the degree to which an individual can organize and self-regulate. The most effective interventions for strengthening executive functioning and improving life skills are those that combine multiple strategies, such as CBT, aerobic exercise, cognitive functioning tasks, and social interaction. Although research related to executive functioning has gained momentum in recent years, many questions remain unanswered and future studies are needed to identify the most efficacious intervention methods.

References

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Spielberg, J. M., Miller, G. A., Engels, A. S., Harrington, J. D., Sutton, B. P., Banich, M. T., & Heller, W. (2011). Trait approach and avoidance motivation: lateralized neural activity associated with executive function. NeuroImage, 54(1), 661-670.

UCLA Peers Clinic (2013). UCLA Peers Clinic. Retrieved from: http://www.semel.ucla.edu/peers. Accessed 11 September 2013. 

Yeager, M. & Yeager, D. (2013). Executive Function & Child Development. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.