Erikson’s Theory of Development

Erik Erikson was a Jewish psychologist who fled Europe during the 1930s. Born in Copenhagen in 1902, Erikson later recalled that as an adolescent he suffered from what he saw as an identity disorder, “My identity confusion was on the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis” (Bloland, 2005, pp. 62-64). This apparently inspired him to study psychology, graduating from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933. Subsequently, fearing that the Nazis might take control of Austria, Erikson immigrated to the United States (Hoare, 2001, pp. 7-12). Like many of his contemporaries, especially those in central Europe, Erikson was heavily influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud. Indeed, during the 1920s, Erikson had worked as a tutor at the Burlingham-Rosenfeld School run by Freud’s daughter, Anna. Ultimately, Erikson has been described as a ‘neo-Freudian’, as he sought to further develop Freud’s notion of early developmental stages.

As discussed by Crain (2011), whereas Freud described development in terms of unconscious thoughts, Erikson focused more upon the actual experience of growing up. For example, his first stage of psychosocial development is that of infancy, and he argued that the defining factor during this period was trust. Infants worry about being abandoned, whether they will be fed on time, and whether they will be taken care of. At each stage, Erikson argued that individuals have the opportunity or potential to develop a virtue. For example, if an infant is well cared for, then that individual will learn they can trust others, and they will carry the virtue of hope into later life. If an infant is not well cared for, then later in life they may prone to feelings of hopelessness and an inability to trust others.

Children attending school will experience three stages of Erikson’s psychosocial development. At the earliest level, the youngest students are likely to be in what Erikson described as the ‘preschool age’. This is generally around the ages of 4-5, but there can be some variance with delayed or accelerated development. We have all seen or at least heard of the child who comes to school for the first time and cries for his mother. Such children remain in the preschool mentality, where their primary focus is upon family. At each stage, there is a generalized crisis which must be resolved. For example, infants must resolve the crisis which surrounds trust. Similarly, at the preschool age, children are fixated upon questions of guilt and duty. What should they do? Are they allowed to do it? Children who learn to act on their own, without first asking permission from their parents, will develop the virtue of purpose.

Older students can be classified within the school stage, which lasts from approximately five years of age to twelve years. Not surprisingly, having left their family for long periods of time, these children are more focused upon their larger community: friends, teachers, and neighbors. Whereas the preschool child seeks approval from the family, the pre-teen seeks approval from the community. They worry about being good enough, and the experiences they have during this time will determine whether they feel competent or develop a lasting insecurity and feelings of inadequacy.

Finally, older students are classified within Erikson’s theory as adolescents. These teenagers are focused on who they will be in later life. They are thus heavily influenced by their mentors, role models, and though they see as peers or fellow-travelers. Successful navigation of this stage in life requires individuals to develop an understanding of their own identity, and the avoidance of confusion about who they are. Undoubtedly, it was this crisis that Erikson suffered from as a child. Those who successfully resolve this issue will grow up to be dutiful and loyal to what they see as ethical. It is important to remember that these stages are approximate, and some individuals may ‘graduate’ early whilst others might linger, “We do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society would put the end somewhere in one's twenties” (Gross, 1987, p. 47).

As a kindergarten teacher, I expect that I will have students who are both of pre-school and school age. One of the most important tasks I will face is determining which students are struggling with preschool crisis, such as worries about their family, and which ones are more focused on a school age crisis, worrying about their friends and peers. The less developed child is likely to need encouragement to ensure them that they are ‘good’, in the sense that their family would approve of them. Such a child, who is reluctant to paint, may need encouragement that his mother would love to see his work. On the other hand, a more developed child is more focused upon being good in the sense of skill. He will respond more to praise of his artistic ability and the approval of his friends. The former student is likely to want to take his work home and show it to his family, whereas the latter is likely to derive more satisfaction from having his work hung prominently in the hallway at school.

A lesson plan that can help both types of students to resolve their existential crisis is to encourage them to discuss, write, or draw something that reflects their sense of belonging or purpose in the world. Indeed, this is true for every stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development, as each form of existential crisis is ultimately in regard to how the individual feels they fit into a larger community. The preschool child is largely focused on initiative, developing the desire to do so something. The school age child is more focused on the result: did they succeed to do something well? Students, much like anyone else, should be encouraged to talk about something they are proud of, in order to encourage a sense of accomplishment and well-being.

References

Bloland, S. (2005). In the Shadow of Fame. Penguin Books, 2005.

Crain, W. (2011). Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Gross, F. (1987). Introducing Erik Erikson: An Invitation to his Thinking. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Hoare, C. (2001). Erikson on Development in Adulthood: New Insights from the Unpublished Papers. Oxford University Press.