Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis provide a premise for the entire branch of psychological study. The ideas that he made popularly known in the 20th century are still respected by psychologists today as they provide a major insight into the human psyche. Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis were developed as the result of particular events in his personal life as well as societal influences of the time period, including to a large extent conceptions about gender differences, roles, and class divisions. These various factors changed his ways of viewing psychology, as we are now able to examine Freud’s theories from a distance of increased perspective. They form the premise that modern psychoanalysis originated from, a foundation that has remained true to basic principles through the entire continued discovery in the psychological field.

Psychoanalysis is a theory of psychological therapy that treats mental disorders through examining the connections between conscious and unconscious states of mind. It attempts to link repressed emotion and memory in a meaningful way through techniques such as dream interpretation. The practice of psychoanalysis connects past events with the present in search of an explanation for particular character traits or behavior patterns. These influences are subconscious and originate from various early stages of development. What psychoanalysis attempts to do is trace the historical explanation for certain behaviors back to an individual’s childhood, in order to form conclusions about treatment of such behaviors (“About Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). It is from self-recognition that a patient can find relief from negative living patterns. These patterns are not laid out in black and white terms as to what a psychotherapist is able to help with, but there are general themes that can be observed. Freud’s theories provided the basis for everything known today about dissociative memory problems, such as that occurs in victims of trauma.

Psychoanalysis has evolved over the years to encompass a variety of additional theories that can be applied to the practice. The analysis consists of extensive patient-doctor interaction, in which discussion centers on the patient, as they are encouraged to speak their feelings and relive certain events through those descriptions (“About Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). Psychoanalysis is still changing as a study, with new advances in neurology allowing scientists to examine reactions in the brain as they correspond with patient behavior. Such research has not been previously possible on such a close level. Now the combined aspect of neurological study with psychoanalysis introduces a new dimension of scientific detail to practicing doctors. The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to change behavior patterns in a positive manner and introduce new ways of living to a patient (“About Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). This facilitates a deeper enjoyment of every aspect of life than would be possible without recognition and therapeutic treatment of the problem.

When psychoanalysis was first introduced to the general public, it took some time to gain as much popularity as the theory got in later years. It eventually grew to become the topic of dinner party conversation in the mid-20th century, as Freud gained recognition and acceptance within the scientific community. People were largely fascinated by the ideas presented in his first book The Interpretation of Dreams because it presented an idea not previously acknowledged. That there were inaccessible parts of the mind, locked-off portions of memories that influence waking life was a novel concept. Freud’s theories about sexuality shocked the public as well, which is likely why he gained in popularity and name-recognition so quickly.

Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 to Jacob and Amalie Freud (Grubin, 2002). He was their first-born child, his father having had two previous marriages both resulting in children. Freud’s mother was substantially younger than his father, a facet of the family dynamic that surely contributed to his later theories. The family moved to Vienna after a failed business venture when Freud was four years old. The children of Jacob’s first marriage were, in fact, older than Amalie, which left an impression on young Freud (Grubin, 2002). He continued to be the favorite son of his mother even as the family grew and he gained six younger siblings. Freud remained close to his mother throughout his life, visiting her often (Grubin, 2002). The results of his family life continued to stay with Freud throughout the rest of his life, especially as he grew to dread failure, comparing his own ambitions to his father’s failed business dream. Although Freud was never a businessman, he was concerned with the publication of his ideas as they would bring him personal success, and ensure his family some stability.

As a young man, Freud went to medical school and became a doctor after meeting Martha Bernays. He accepted a position at Vienna General Hospital in order to earn money for their family, and the two married in 1886 (Grubin, 2002). Martha bore six children, staying at home to mother them while Freud continued his medical research and practice (Grubin, 2002). Many scholars debate about Freud’s theories as they applied to women, and if Martha’s adopting her role as wife and mother serves as a reflection of his convictions.

The basis for many of Freud’s theories were derived from careful observation of his own children. The psychologist additionally looked to himself as a subject of study. When his father died in 1896, Freud came to a series of self-revelations that led to the development of one of his most well-known theories, the Oedipus complex (Grubin, 2002). This theory led to further introspection, upon which Freud began to analyze his own subconscious state and published his first book, The Interpretation of Dreams (“Sigmund Freud,” n.d.). This book would introduce the idea of divided states of consciousness and lead to further discoveries in psychological theory. Freud believed that the unconscious state-provided indications for every behavior pattern, which could be analyzed and understood through an individual’s dreams (“Sigmund Freud Biography, n.d.). He expressed that these unconscious desires reveal themselves in the sleeping state, but have a profound impact on a person’s waking reality. These theories are controversial because of researcher’s inability to test them. As Freud continued to analyze his own dreams, his methods moved away from hypnosis techniques and towards a system of free association. In this way, the patient is asked to openly discuss feelings, emotions, and memories however unrelated to the topic such discussion may seem (“World Biography,” n.d.). Freud’s theories expanded past those encompassing hypnosis as the only method of patient analysis to develop a technique that continues to be of use to the psychological community.

Freud’s theories of sex and sexuality were controversial in that they acknowledged the presence of unexpressed desires within the human consciousness. One theory related to this idea that of the Oedipus complex, named after the Greek mythological figure. As the protagonist of a play by Sophocles, Oedipus unknowingly fulfills a prophecy in which he kills his father and marries his mother. Freud applied this mythology towards the development of his theory that a child sees his parents as objects of desire (Wilson, 2009). To a young boy, the love and attention of his mother are contested by his father’s presence. These feelings manifest themselves in the early stages of development, between the ages of three and five. While the child will not consciously act on the desire to obtain his father’s power and replace him as his mother’s lover, the desire remains within the subconscious state and manifests itself as anxiety or neurosis (Wilson, 2009). Freud’s theories are controversial in that he provides no proof other than his own observations and deductions of the complex in his patients.

Throughout his secondary schooling career, Freud was consistently at the head of his class and obtained good grades. His family placed high importance on education, and as his mother’s favorite Freud was given his own time for quiet study (Grubin, 2002). Freud’s grades led him to attend college at Vienna University, where he studied medicine (Bradley, n.d.). Freud has little intention of becoming a doctor but showed an interest in neuropathy from his early studies onwards. It was during this time that Freud became interested in finding a cure for hysteria. One of his colleagues, a man by the name of Josef Breuer, was examining the effects of hypnosis in calming the hysteria of one of his patients. He had found that the young woman became talkative when in a hypnotized state, although she would later wake with no recollection of speaking and her symptoms alleviated (“Sigmund Freud,” n.d.). Freud paid close attention to the research of Breuer, and went on to accept a position of study in Paris under Jean-Martin Charcot, who was very well known at the time. With Charcot, Freud studied further the use of hypnosis as a cure for hysterics (“Sigmund Freud,” n.d.). Freud did not have success pursuing the theories he had studied for treating hysterics, and he abandoned the idea in his own practice (“Sigmund Freud,” n.d.). He instead adopted simple techniques, allowing his patients to get comfortable and speak as they wished through a series of directed exercises.

The psychologist and researcher Carl Jung became one of Freud’s closest colleagues, as the two worked together for several years developing theories. Jung’s main interest was the spiritual and religious side of analytical psychology. He looked to the myths and historic accounts of ritualistic behavior to give him an insight into the unconscious (Cowgil, 1979). Jung attributed great meaning to symbols and looked to different patterns in an effort to derive further understanding of human nature. His views on sex and sexuality diverged with those of Freud, and the two only continued working together until these differences became too important to ignore. The two split for good when Jung published a book of theories called Psychology and the Unconscious that disproved parts of Freud’s work (Cowgil, 1979). The two disagreed in method and practice although their fields of study were so close. Jung did extensive work with the unconscious mind, he even created the term “complex” to describe behavior patterns in patients exhibiting repressed memories and neurotic behavior (Cowgil, 1979). This term is still used today by doctors to describe patient behavior. Jung distinguished his work as an individual psychologist from that of Freud, calling his branch of study analytical psychology, rather than psychoanalysis (Cowgil, 1979). Jung’s practice derived different meaning from life events, his work did not support Freud’s extensive theorizing regarding sexual development and maturity. Jung’s publication of Psychological Types shortly after the beginning of the First World War laid out the difference between his work and Freud’s (Cowgil, 1979). This volume was written primarily describing the introverted and extroverted divisions Jung theorized existed in all people, and how the personality splits affected the conscious and unconscious states (Jung, 1921). It continues to be widely referenced today in the field of psychological study.

Freud has referred to time and time again as the founder of psychoanalysis. As a result of his relentless promotion, the field of study grew from an initial collection of ideas to include a collection of respected psychologists with their own research to contribute. Freud advocated for the sciences and was known to host regular gatherings of his colleagues for the purposes of discussion and analysis of current scientific topics (“World Biography,” n.d.). After 1902, these gatherings became regular events and included for a time contributions by Carl Jung, among other colleagues. These meetings were held as study groups for the psychologists to exchange papers and discussion pertaining to the advances in psychoanalytical theory (“World Biography,” n.d.). In this manner, Freud and his colleagues were able to present their research findings to one another and work to collaborate on particular theorizations. In 1908, the first International Psychoanalytic Congress was held in Salzburg (“World Biography,” n.d.). The event led to increased discussion of psychoanalytical topics amongst new groups of researchers, an important step in the evolving ideas of this topic.

The First World War has a profound effect on the general social consciousness across Europe. It was the first war in which technological advances in weaponry were used on such a large scale. Both sides of the conflict implemented poison gas and heavy grenade fire, which led to the mental and physical harm of many soldiers. Freud’s sons were drafted to fight, which brought the war conflict close to him. The war would shift the social acceptance of Freud’s theories (Exploded Manuscript, n.d.). In the aftereffects of the first world war, many soldiers returned home battle-scarred and shell-shocked. This influx created a demand for psychological practices, and leaders within the field continued to innovate new approaches to dealing with PTSD among other therapies. Because of the nature of trench warfare, the horrors of war were escalated in particular during the time period. “Shell-shock” was treated as a psychological disorder, and talk therapy was used to draw soldiers out of silence (Exploded Manuscript, n.d.). This was the first time Freud’s theories were supported by other psychologists across the discipline as containing real value in therapeutic practice.

World War One brought with it a general sense of disillusionment with the fighting effort, as many members of society felt that the violence incurred was senseless and they began to question what had been a previously accepted moral code. This questioning led to an increased room for acceptance of other unconventional theories that deviated from past precedent, in particular those proposed by Freud (Exploded Manuscript, n.d.). The topics that he studied were of interest to the public at the same time people were becoming less skeptic of new ideas.

Freud saw the conflict as originating naturally from a society in which people were forced to repress their instinctual behaviors. It was natural to him that such a war should occur, as nations failed to come to the compromise that would be necessary to avoid conflict. (Exploded Manuscript, n.d.) He saw that there was a human instinct for self-destruction, and that war brought out the most of this death drive or Thanatos. Thanatos opposed the life force Eros, which was tied to sexual reproduction (“Origins of Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). This changed the way that people thought about their own mortality and resulted in many societal changes. Freud openly expressed such disillusionment within his writings, as he criticized the idea of an apparently civilized series of nation-states behaving in an aggressive manner, resulting in so much carnage (Freud, 1915). Civilized nations turned on one another in such a way that severed the bonds between their peoples, and left nothing but death and destruction for the winners to reconcile with. Freud believed that war was inevitable result of living in society that emphasized moral code and rejected the instinctual behaviors of its members (Freud, 1915). He predicted it coming, knowing with equal certainty that it was inevitable. World War One contributed to Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis by confirming many of his theories about human nature, as well as bringing about the change that would allow these theories social acceptance.

The early 20th century was the cusp of change in defining a new culture that would last through the next century. During Freud’s time, collective society experienced a shift in perceptions of sexuality especially as they pertained to the separate sexes. Women had previously been inclined to embrace the traditional roles of the good mother and wife, as they helped raise families with the financial support of men. This social expectation put restrictions on what a woman could do, and in the earlier part of the 20th century it came to a head with the suffragette movement. Freud’s theories were popularized at the same time this movement called public attention to changing gender roles and heightened freedom of sexual expression. Women were kept from participating in the political process, and they started to speak out against this disadvantage and call for other human freedoms such as birth control rights (Emsley et al., 2013). It was the first big movement across society for the disenfranchised female voice to be expressed and was hugely influential in Freud’s development of psychoanalytical theories.

Freud lived through many of the most subversive changes to ever occur in gender culture as it leads to the modern-day. In 19th century Europe, women were very much fulfilling the social duties expected of them. This meant bearing children and maintaining a household for a husband. Any emphasis on femininity was in regard to fertility. “Women were idealized as mothers, while those who failed to meet expectations were censured as prostitutes with uncontrollable sexual desires,” (Emsley, Hitchcocks, & Shoemaker, 2013). Women were generally considered to be less capable than their male counterparts in reasoning capacities as well as physical makeup. This was derived from the accepted expressions of various religions at the time, as well as the greater scientific community’s support for such ideas (Emsley et al., 2013). Such conceptions about women possessing inferior abilities kept the workforce segregated throughout the later part of the century. Paid positions held by women primarily worked that constituted an extension of the household chores such as the domestic textile industry. It was not until the beginnings of the 20th century that women’s employment opportunities expanded to include work outside the home as typists and schoolteachers (Emsley et al., 2013). Additionally, more positions in different industries became available for women with the beginning of World War One. Because men were drafted to fight, the production efforts necessary to sustain a war fell in many cases entirely to women, as they took on positions working in the manufacturing sectors. Freud’s written expression of his theories reflects the diminished importance of women in society at the time. He does not specifically address the female developmental stages, which either can lead us to the conclusion that the stages are exactly the same, or that female development is negligible in comparison to the male counterpart (“Origins of Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). Freud’s lack of documented theorizing about the female psyche reveals his own preconceptions as fitting into the time period. His family life was a reflection of this belief as well, being comprised of a traditional structure in which a wife does not participate in activities outside of the home, secondary in importance to her husband.

Freud’s theories of sexuality encompass five different periods of development, referred to as the psychosexual stages of development (“Origins of Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). These stages refer to different periods of time during which a child derives pleasure from bodily sensations focused in different areas. These areas are known as erogenous zones, and change as a person matures. Freud believed that behavior patterns manifested in adult life can be traced back to characteristics developed within these stages (“Origins of Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). Repressed behaviors reflective of a particular stage of development become fixations as they persist. Fixation can take a different form but results from a distorted pleasure-seeking principle (“Origins of Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to eliminate such behavior impulses through discussion and analysis of a discovered fixation.

These theories were proposed in perfect accord with the sexual revolution and its influence on society in the early 1900s. There was at the time a heightened sense of freedom in discussion of sexuality as people questioned the moral code that had previously created a prohibitive discussion environment. Freud theorized that many of a person’s neurosis or fixation problems could be derived from such prohibition of sexual expression (“Origins of Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). This atmosphere of restriction and shame that surrounded sexual exploration derived from roots of religion and morality within European society at the time. Freud’s theories proved instrumental in shifting the discussion about sex to be grounded in academic theory and study, which undoubtedly changed social perceptions about the acceptability of this discussion.

For his personality theory, Freud defined three divisions of personality, to which he applied the terminology of being the Id, Superego, and Ego. The Id is where all fixations come from, the pleasure-seeking part of a person’s brain that grows as they do. It is the primary instinct and the reason we are able to survive, although we never know it directly in consciousness (“Origins of Psychoanalysis,” n.d.). The Id is expressed in clarity through our dreaming states, which dream analysis can effectively unlock. Freud theorized that the Superego existed in opposition to the Id, is the responsibility that every member of society is expected to adopt. This is the acknowledgment of taboos as well as recognition of self, from which comes self-evaluation. Branching the space between Id and Superego is the Ego, the part of a person’s mental faculty that balances a person’s individual, selfish drives with those of the society. This is how a person is able to cognitively reason and satisfy the needs of their Id in an appropriate manner. For many reasons these theories cannot be scientifically proven through experimental study, however they are widely acknowledged within the psychological community as forming the basis for psychoanalytical analysis.

Freud’s use of observational and case study techniques present a detailed glimpse into a psychological theory that is accurately representative of the external forces at play within his own life. His writings describe the conflicted nature of a culture in which each individual is forced to repress their instincts to be deemed civilized, and how much society is weakened to potential outbreaks of war and fighting. World War One and the conflicts that would follow as Nazi Germany rose to power in Europe affected Freud as his thinking was influenced by the response to such events. Freud developed in his later years a more comprehensive idea of the extent that human influences operate within society, which helped further his social theories.

At the time Freud was developing and studying his theories of psychoanalysis, class conflict was increasingly a concern for many European countries. Class divisions were apparent as separating the working citizens from those who owned factories or held other positions of power. Societal influences tended towards discord amongst economic factions, which spilled over into politics as well. Financial instability and unrest amongst the lower classes of people resulted in increased tensions with wealthier citizens. This came to various peaks, as the years during which Freud inhabited Europe were of nearly constant revolution. The political power exchanges and various class divisions influenced Freud’s development of theories about leadership and human interaction with a group. At the time of his research, various uprisings had cumulated in a shaky balance between international powers, as is made evident by the resulting first and second World Wars. It is through this lens that Freud was able to examine a unique transition of political power from where it had previously been concentrated in the hands of monarchies.

The latter half of the 19th century into the early 20th century was a time of revolutions, as the class conflict escalated across Europe. It was during this time that discussions of socialism came about, proposed as the ideological opposition to existing monarchial structures of power. In 1848 Karl Marx wrote his Communist Manifesto to lead as a voice speaking out against the Bourgeoisie-controlled state of affairs. His writing serves as an example of the sentiments shared by many working-class individuals across Europe. At the time there was a certain respect for social traditions of inheritance, and cycles of poverty continued unchecked as the poorest members of society were disenfranchised from any political process (Isaac, Harrison, Lipold, 2008). Workers remained for the large part separated from any attainable goals. Freud very much feared the potential of falling into poverty as he worked to support his family, a sentiment shared by many working-class citizens at the time (Grubin, 2013). While Freud was never forced to take a factory job, the society in which he inhabited was on the brink of industrial revolution, and there was a huge push to fill factory labor. At this time, it was apparent to members of European society that a small percentage of those in power held most of the concentrated wealth as well as political power to ensure continued wealth possession (Isaac et al., 2008). At the same time as lower and working classes of citizens were isolated from inspiring social change through political participation, there was a push for community organization, and a new group of people was formed by uniting within the social caste.

Freud practiced individual psychology extensively and applied the same concepts of theory to the wider world. He viewed group psychology as an extension of individual psychology (Holmes, 1965). He examined the group in terms of polarization around a leader. It is through having this subordination in common that members of a group are able to connect with one another and identify themselves as belonging to a greater organization of people (Holmes, 1965). The group psychology functions to band a collection of individuals around a common cause, through which they are led to attaining goals. A leader must exist who do not incur the jealousy of followers within the group; for there is risk that their power can be usurped. This relates to Freud’s theories about the Oedipus conflict. In the particular allegory, a son serves as obedient to his father’s rule, although he remains in secret envy. He does not act on this impulse to destroy his father because society (acting as the Ego) tells him it would be wrong. This social contract is comparable to the power given to an authority figure, or leader. Freud developed these theories as Germany gave rise to an expanding Nazi powers. This affected Freud personally because of his Jewish descent, and he fled Austria in 1938 when the country fell to Nazi control. Selections of Freud’s books were deemed controversial materials by Nazi troops and accordingly burned (“Sigmund Freud,” n.d.). The changes that occurred so rapidly within Europe between the World Wars led to Freud’s extended theorization about the influences of power within society, and how they applied to the psychological conditioning of people. Freud’s own experience can be viewed as an individual example of a conflict that extended across society and encompassed entire nations of people.

Sigmund Freud led the way in developing influential theories to explain human behavior through psychoanalysis. Although most of his research was conducted qualitatively, it resulted in a further understanding of mental facilities as they relate to neurotic behavior. His findings enabled the psychological community’s further investigations into human behavior patterns and instincts. Freud introduced the concepts of transference and memory repression to a greater field of study, from which modern concepts evolved. His theories were a product of the time period, as the early 20th century represented a midpoint between changes in social perceptions. The general public was willing to accept new theories of psychological analysis, and so Freud’s ideas gained recognition within the larger community. The changing demographics were led by perceptions of disillusionment brought on by World War One, as well as views of women’s shifting role in society. Rampant class conflict at the time had an extended influence on his development of psychoanalytical theory as well, as Freud lived through repeated national and international conflicts. Each of these factors, in turn, affected the product of a theory that still attracts merit as a blueprint for analysis and treatment of psychological disorders such as neurosis. It is through extensions of the theories proposed by Freud that psychologists today are able to come to a deeper understanding of the human psyche and how a person develops to learn behavior characteristics. The origin of psychoanalytic principles can be traced from Freud’s theorizing across its evolution today, as a viable method of therapeutic analysis. The Freudian theory continues to be relevant in its application to treatment of various types of neurosis.

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