Changing Roles: A Critical Evaluation of Grandparents as Parents

Introduction

Family structures in which grandparents raise their grandchildren are increasingly common, which stimulates the need for more analysis in the field of early childhood education to ensure that appropriate interventions are put in place to reduce issues that arise out of this family structure. The prevalence and seriousness of this issue are apparent in the behavioral studies done on stranger-adoption and family-adoption scenarios as the attempt to discover better methods for intervention and child well-being is an ongoing issue. Several matters in a parent's life can promote a child's move to the grandparent's home, including drug abuse, teen pregnancy, divorce, mental and health issues, and other problems.

The relationship which children engender with their grandparents in these situations is complex, as is the relationship between the grandparent and their parental role. Many empirical studies have been performed to both qualitatively and quantitatively evaluate child/grandparent living structures, which on the whole is a well-functioning alternative to adoption. However, the consequences in the health and mental abilities of the grandparents, as well as financial constraints, must be addressed to produce a well-reasoned argument that grandparenting is a positive and successful practice, and to form appropriate parenting interventions specifically tailored for grandparents raising their grandchildren. Because the nature of a disrupted biological family structure often produces serious issues for a child, grandparents taking the role of a parent may help to soften the traumatic effects by keeping a close blood relative as the guardian.

Grand-parenting Stresses and Child Well-being

Grandparents take over parenting for many reasons. Death, incarceration, drug abuse, unmarried and teen pregnancy, mental illness, divorce, and disability are just a few factors in a parent's inability to care for their child. According to the 2013 U.S. Census, over 2.5 million grandchildren have grandparents as their primary guardian. Grand-parenting is a sensitive issue in some cases because the age of the grandparents has a direct effect on the health and well-being of the child. The fact that guardian-grandparents are second-generation parents also affects parenting abilities, as evidenced in a study performed by Dolbin-MacNab (2006). The study evaluates the implications that meanings and feelings stemming from a grandparent's assessment of their parenting abilities has on their effectiveness and personal well-being. Using data from other studies investigating grandchild adjustment and family functioning in grandparent-guardian households, specifically addressing the role of the grandmother.

This information was gathered from self-report questionnaires and a qualitative in-person interview. The study determined that 10% of grandmothers who didn't differentiate between raising their own children and raising their grandchildren reported just as much of an emotional bond to their grandchildren as they felt toward their children (Dolbin-MacNab, 2006, p. 569). A further 23% felt that they brought wisdom and experience to the process after having parented one generation already. They felt that this time they were performing better as a parent due to their increased knowledge (Dolbin-MacNab, 2006, p. 569). A total 13% reported more enjoyment and fulfillment by being more relaxed when parenting their grandchildren versus their children, 25% felt they had more time and attention and thus performed better, and 30% noted the challenges of aging affecting their abilities (Dolbin-MacNab, 2006, p. 569). Other studies corroborate these results (Poehlmann 2003; Havir & Olson 1999), suggesting that grandparent's views on the second generation child-rearing process largely increases feelings of self-worth and ability.

For the child, many issues from losing the biological parents as guardians are mitigated by grandparents functioning as surrogate parents. Although many studies have examined the effects of second-generation parenting on the grandparents, few studies have been performed evaluating the child's experience. Poehlmann (2003) conducted research using the attachment perspective, which broadened previous empirical data by focusing not just on individuals, but on dyadic relationships and with an intergenerational span. The complexity arising from the necessary analysis prompted a range of assessments of “behavioral, cognitive, emotional, interpersonal, and social-contextual dynamics in relationships” (Poehlmann, 2003, p. 151), instead of just looking at just one facet. Attachment theory is particularly appropriate in that it also seeks to uncover the effects that absent parents, separation, and feelings of loss, has on development, along with its effect on other adaptive and maladaptive functions. Poelhmann (2003) proposes three simultaneously occurring processes which include one very important distinction: “(1) disruptions in attachments...especially in relationships involving parents (although in some circumstances grandparents' assumption of caregiving for grandchildren may not disrupt parent-child relationships)” (p. 151) which identifies the diminishment in disruption that would suggest grandparents are a good choice for surrogate parenting.

There are other findings regarding the impact of biological family members as well. Meara (2014) reports that children who maintain a biological family member as guardian after the dissolution of the biological family structure, experience less trauma and disruption than those who go to a non-related adoptive family (p. 130). Grandparents are typically already familiar to the child, which diminishes the sense of distrust that can come out of the adoption process. Meara (2014) also stresses the importance of a child's relationship with those who identify as family to promote healthy development (p. 103). Stability is an important aspect of early childhood development, and this familial connection could allow for a more coherent identity formation than if a child is in the child welfare system and put through foster care.

Grandparents are often a consistent presence in a child's life, which surrounds their presence with feelings of security. The normative relationship between a grandchild and a grandparent is certainly familial and comforting. For children who are facing adoption by a stranger, many issues can arise out of the sense of mistrust, anger, and insecurity that are not softened by a familiar, familial presence. In a review of Bowlby (1972), Poehlmann found it reported “that children experienced stages of protest, despair and detachment in their reactions to separation: (Poehlmann, 2003, p. 155). This behavioral expression can be maladaptive and lead to later social and emotional problems. In adoptive situations, issues can arise which are virtually nonexistent in grandparenting structures. Howe (1995) found that “later-adopted children who had a history of neglect, abuse, or multiple placements experienced difficulty forming relationships, poor developmental outcomes, and displayed indiscriminate behavior toward others” (p. 26). Grandparents assert a grandchild's biological connection to their parents, which can lessen the feelings of loss and abandonment. It is especially important to amplify the feelings of security and safety for a child who has experienced the traumatic dissolution of a parenting unit.

Problems and Limitations

The positive trends discussed are tempered by the challenges many grandparents face when rearing their grandchildren. Although Dolbin-MacNab's (2006) study showed many positive implications for grandparent's feelings toward raising their grandchildren, additional research conducted suggests that the stressors present in the lives of many grandparent-guardians are related to greater themes that need to be addressed through intervention, to safeguard children's well-being. For example, lack of energy and physical limitations often make it difficult or impossible to present their grandchildren with the same opportunities offered to their children (Dolbin-MacNab, 2006, p. 573). Grandmothers specifically reported challenges related to the change in family dynamics, such as the lack of a male role model and concurrently playing at the roles of both grandparent and parent.

Additionally, and even more serious, are the attendant economic, political and social challenges of raising a grandchild. Economic security, health coverage, and other legal concerns factor greatly in a child's overall well-being. Havir & Olson (1999) note that “affordable and appropriate housing is a major concern for many of these grandparents” (p. 3). Welfare reforms began acknowledging grandparents raising children in 1996 when President Clinton shifted the Aid to Families with Dependent Children to Temporary Aid to Needy Families, or TANF (Copen, 2004, p. 194). Accepting TANF is associated with a complex evaluation of values for many grandparents raising a child due to negative parental issues, such as drug use, unemployment, incarceration, HIV/AIDs, or domestic violence.

As many of these circumstances are correlated with poverty levels (the 2004 U.S. Census declared 22% of children living with grandparents were living in poverty), a large number of grandparent custodians accept government assistance. Copen (2004) details the associated hardships: “Age, race, gender, social class, labor force participation, and difficult family circumstances intersect to create multiple points of disadvantage among grandparent caregivers” (p. 196). The fact that foster care does not always legally recognize grandparents as adoptive parents hinders the ability to receive TANF. Work requirements included in TANF does not take into account the special needs of grandparent caregivers (Copen, 2004, p. 198). The increasing financial hardship creates stress for the grandparent caregiver and requires the grandparent to become knowledgeable about rights and laws surrounding their situation. The stresses brought about by a lack of legal protection can contribute to declining health, interest, and ability.

Interventions can address this issue and many of the issues presented here. One such example, presented by Copen (2004), is the AARP Grandparent Information Center which offers support groups, information, and referrals to national and local resources. Other examples of interventions are put forth on theory, as conclusions from some of the studies discussed. Dolbin-MacNab urges health practitioners to incorporate material related to the issues of grandparent health problems and limited energy due to the changing family roles (573). The areas in which grandparents locate difficulty are the areas that interventions must address. Mental health and perception of ability are greatly important in maintaining a healthy, happy family.

Conclusion

Though there are many limitations as the field is still understudied, it is clear that grandparent-parent roles are important in giving children an advantage when coping with the dissolution of a normative family structure. The lessened trauma associated with being placed with grandparents instead of strangers is essential to a child's well-being and ability to rebound. Grandparents can be supportive through difficult family disruptions and have most likely already been present other disputes. As elders are often considered role models and grandparents carry within them the family history, they can uphold family values and instill the ethnic and cultural heritage that is native to the child. Though there are many legal, economic, and health-related issues, overcoming these can be made easier through public and government programs. Staying with a biological grandparent incorporates acceptance and familiarity into an otherwise lonely and difficult path through adoption. More should be done in the public sector to ensure that the transition allows for maximum success, for the well-being of both child and grandparent.

References

Copen, C. E. (2006). Welfare reform. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 18(3-4), 193-209.

Dolbin-MacNab, M. L. (2006). Just like raising your own? Grandmothers' perceptions of parenting a second time around. Family Relations, 55(5), 564-575.

Havir, L., & Olson, D. (1999). Grandparents raising children. The Repository at St. Cloud State University, n.v., 1-4.

Howe, D. (1995). Attachment theory for social work practice. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillian.

Kreider, R. M. (2008). Living arrangements of children: 2004. U.S. Census Bureau.

Meara, K. (2014). What's in a name? Defining and granting legal status to grandparents who are informal primary caregivers of their grandchildren. Family Court Review, 52(1), 128-141.

Poehlmann, J. (2003). An attachment perspective on grandparents raising their very young grandchildren: implications for intervention and research. Infant Mental Health, 24(2), 149-173.