Psychoanalysis: Understanding Emotions and Repression

Introduction

Varying psychological perspectives have been developed throughout the years of clinical psychiatric exploration. One of many theories is psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis was developed through clinical studies that heavily focused on listening to the patient. Sigmund Freud headed the discovery of this theoretical field through his work with medical professional Wilhelm Fliess. From there, other medical professionals worked together to build upon this theory through clinical studies and listening to their patients. Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, is one of many of Freud’s students who helped build this theory and bring it to the United States, where it was popularized. Freud’s studies very much focused on repression, especially that of sexuality. Jung, on the other hand, valued the whole person, insisting that each detail of the person’s life contributed to who they are. While there are several spin-offs of the psychoanalytic theory, it continues to be a critical theory used in clinical psychology and emphasizes the importance of the individuals and their understanding of happenings in their lives.

This paper will investigate psychoanalytic theory today, as well as its foundations in the late nineteenth century. It is critical to understand its development in order to effectively use it in clinical practice. Freud began this study, and his work has evolved over the centuries to what it is today. Today, psychoanalysis is a crucial part of clinical psychological practices. It has been influenced by much medical analysis which has helped shape the theory. One of Freud’s most famous pupils, Carl Jung, contributed very much to the theory and shaped what it is today. Jung deemphasized sexuality and insisted on the importance of the individual. Today, psychoanalysis has pulled from theories to create a merger which is used in psychotherapeutic practices.

Literature Review

Sigmund Freud is considered the father of psychoanalysis due to his work in establishing the theory. Freud began his career as a neurologist until he met the oncologist Wilhelm Fliess (Gilman, 1987). Fliess theorized a connection with the nostrils to the genitals, which inspired Freud’s idea of the interconnection of psychiatry and neurobiology. While Fliess helped inspire Freud’s work, little recognition is given to Fliess as a developer of the theory. Fliess had little involvement in the formation of analytic theory.

Nineteenth-century psychiatry was not a medical field, rather a form of institutionalizing individuals who did not act according to norms. Kurt Danziger (1982) discusses the institutionalization of mentally ill patients in nineteenth-century England Danziger explains the importance of mental institutions as they allowed officials to gather and watch “social deviants,” thereby protecting the individual and the community from the patient’s irrational actions, as well as learn from their behavior (1982, p. 120). Adversely, Freud began his career working in neurobiology studying cells within the spinal cord and their correlation to the brain (Galbis-Reig, 2003). As Freud worked with Fliess, he shifted his concentration within neurobiology to focus on psychopathology and sexuality (Gilman, 1987). From this combination, psychoanalysis was born.

Freud’s early work with psychoanalysis revolved around the idea of the Oedipal complex, which correlated to the Greek tragedy, Oedipus Tyrannus. Freud makes several associations between the tragic happenings of Oedipus to the human experience in his book The Interpretation of Dreams. The Interpretation of Dreams is Freud’s first published work on the psychoanalytic perspective. Oedipus famously, as well as unknowingly, killed his father and married his mother. In the same way, Freud argues that each individual’s first love is for their mother and their first hatred is towards their father (Chase, 1979). Freud furthers his argument by asserting the evidence of repression and making an analogy between the play and an individual who experiences trauma. First, Freud explains that Oedipus does not realize his wrongdoings due to repression. In comparison, Freud explains that, before puberty, if a sexual act is brought on, the individual cannot recognize it as sexual. After puberty, if an event comparable to the first, but with no sexual connotation, is experienced, the second event will trigger the memory of the first event (Chase, 1979). The second event, even as no sexual conduct was experienced, will hold the effects of the first event, as well as cause the memories of the first event to be repressed. Freud named this experience Emma (Chase, 1979). From his theories regarding Oedipus and Emma, Freud asserts that the disturbance in Oedipus Tyrannus is not due to the incestuous actions, rather due to repression. Freud further his comparison, claiming Oedipus’s killing of his father and marrying his mother is like the first event experienced by Emma (Chase, 1979). The first scenes contain the trauma but, because Emma has not experienced puberty and Oedipus does not realize the man he killed is his father and the woman he marries is his mother, Emma and Oedipus are blind to their transgression. Then, as events occur which brings to light the reality of the first events, the two individuals experience the trauma for the first time. They continue to be unable to recognize that the trauma they are experiencing occurred years ago. Instead, they see the trauma as a more recent occurrence. Just as Freud’s views are combated with criticism today, these views were not accepted by the general public in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.

One of the followers and eventual colleges of Freud is Carl Jung. Jung met Freud six years after Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams, and Jung soon became an understudy of Freuds. While Jung learned a lot from Freud and held many of the same ideas, their working relationship eventually crumbled as Jung began to elaborate on Freud’s theories in a way, Freud believed, was contradictory to itself. Don Fredericksen,(1980) argues that the integral difference between Freud and Jung’s ideologies concern the psyche. Freud believed that the psyche is developed causally and biographically. Jung, on the other hand, had a less simplistic idea of the psyche, claiming it is made up of archetypal factors (Fredericksen, 1980). While the two continued to work together even as their differences were obvious, in 1912 Jung published his first work regarding psychoanalytic theory, thereby destroying the pair’s working relationship. Jung published Symbols of Transformation, which touched on interpreting symbols and their relationship to religion, the psyche, and mythology (Fredericksen, 1980). This publication was the breaking point of Freud and Jung’s professional relationship. From the split between Freud and Jung, Jung was able to begin his own studies of the psychoanalytic perspective, which he named analytic psychology.

By 1913 Jung and Freud were no longer working together and Jung was developing his own psychoanalytic theories. Like Freud, Jung realized that dreams hold importance, but he also acknowledges that not all dreams can be traced to the individual's history. Instead, they contribute to personal archetypes. Jung wrote about archetypes claiming they are, “repeated observations that, for instance, the myths and fairytales of world literature contain definite motifs which crop up everywhere. We meet these same motifs in fantasies, deliria, and delusions of individuals living today” (Fredericksen, 1980, p. 51). Therefore, these motifs are apart of the psychological structure of each person. Another major difference between Freud and Jung is Jung’s idea that the Self is the center of the psyche, rather than the ego as Freud believed (Fredericksen, 1980). With this view, Jung emphasizes the individual in his psychoanalytic practices. Through his research, Jung found that the individual knows him or herself best and, therefore, they should elaborate on what they feel is significant happenings in their life, as well as be responsible for interpreting those events along with their dreams. The therapist should merely guide the patient through their analysis.

Now, in the twenty-first century, many of the theories developed by Freud and Jung continue to be used in clinical psychology to assist patients to understand who they are. Carpenter (2000) discusses psychoanalysis and its uses for memory recovery. He emphasizes listening in psychoanalytic practices and suggest that the therapist should not make interpretations, but instead guide the patient and help them make their own assumptions about their experiences (2000). Much of this reasoning is due to the lack of scientific process within psychoanalytic theory. There is no definite proof that cigars in dreams are phallic symbols, as Freud would suggest. Instead, it could be the patient’s desire to smoke, or an association to poker night. The therapist should leave the interpretation to the patient, rather than giving a false synopsis.

Irving Sarnoff (1960) discusses several aspects of clinical psychoanalysis practiced today. Much of Sarnoff’s ideas are rooted in Freudian theory. He centers his argument around four concepts that therapists should consider when guiding their patients through analysis: motive, conflict, ego defense, and attitude (1960, p. 252). According to Sarnoff, each individual experiences several “tensions” on a daily basis. These tensions are stimuli for a motive which acts to reduce the tension. In order for motives to be productive, the individual must weigh their options and act on the best motive to reduce the tension (Sarnoff, 1960). Repression becomes an important concept when multiple motives are acting simultaneously, which is known as conflicts. Sarnoff explains repression, conflict, and ego defense with an example of a masturbating child (1960). If the child begins to have sexual desire, which is a form of tension, he will likely act in response to his desires my masturbating. But, in the event that the child is caught masturbating by his disapproving parents, he then has a conflict in tensions, that of acting according to parental ideals or satisfying his own sexual desires. This conflict of pleasing oneself against pleasing societal ideals is known as ego defense (Sarnoff, 1960). Ego defense is a concept developed by Freud as he investigated repression. As the child struggles between pleasing his parents and himself, it is likely that he will settle upon pleasing his parents and repressing his sexual desires. While this may solve the tensions temporarily, Carpenter (2000) points out that, “symptoms pushed down in one place will resurface elsewhere” (2000, p. 86). The last important element that is considered by a psychotherapist is attitude. Attitude, as described by Sarnoff (1960), is an individual’s favorable or unfavorable reactions to objects. Attitudes are significant, as they are a by-product of the decision-making process of responding to tension stimuli. By understanding these four concepts, therapists have a lens to look at their patients through and help them conclude the reasons behind their actions and emotions. Of course, psychoanalytic theory has undergone several changes since the nineteenth century, but two concepts remain. Freud's emphasis on repression is critical to the theory, as Jung’s idea of the significance of the Self.

Methodology

In order to understand the analytic theory, the theoretical thesis lens will be used. This lens allows for an extensive literature review, in order to understand the theories and ideas previously researched. From gathering expert viewpoints the psychoanalytic perspective can be thoroughly understood and build upon.

Psychoanalytic theory has been developed over the last two hundred years and is complex. Therefore, due to the breadth of the study, a clear understanding of the perspective cannot be established without the previously build body of knowledge. From the above literature review, expert research can be compiled in order to provide an understanding of the most relevant concepts. Book, articles, and psychological text reviews are used in the literature review to ensure the most accurate understanding of relevant concepts of psychoanalytic theory. The literature review portion is pivotal to the research of this paper and without it, clear results cannot be found.

It is the goal of this paper to give a further understanding of the perspective of psychoanalytic theory. This theory is a vital piece of clinical psychology today and, therefore, a full understanding of the perspective is a key part of the study of psychology, as well as clinical practices.

Results

The results of this study are based on the findings within the literature review. They should encourage further discussion, as well as enhance understanding of psychoanalytic concepts. The organization of the result will be in pertinent order, ensuring the reader full awareness of ideas presented by previous scholars and psychologists.

Once the literature review outlines basic concepts, theories, and studies within psychoanalytic theory, it will be capable to have a discussion over the finding. The discussion will include conceptualizing the key elements of the theory, as well as note the gaps within the theory. From this discussion, clinical practices can be enhanced. The ideas presented contribute to the way psychologists and psychoanalysis interact with their patients, as well as assist their understanding of the concepts and, thereby, their patients.

Discussion

Through this discussion, several concepts addressed in the literature review will be rehashed. Here, it will be decided what overlaps occur between varying interpretations of the analytic perspective, as well as when the theories contradict each other or fall short to give a full understanding of the ideas.

Freud began the development of psychoanalytic theory, but its well known that his views have gone under fire, not only by outside views but also by those who agree with psychoanalytic theory. For example, Freud has a large emphasis on sexuality in his theory. Much of his emphasis on sexuality is due to early development and his personal feelings towards his parents. As presented earlier, Freud asserted that each individual’s first love is for their mother, while their first hatred is for their father. Freud supports this theory with the Greek tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus and his feelings after the death of his father. The mother is the primary caregiver of her child, and the father is the primary individual who the child must share the mother with. As a result, the child develops feelings of jealousy towards their father. In the Greek tragedy, Oedipus did not realize the man he killed was his father, nor did he realize the woman he married was his mother. Oedipus’s ignorance is comparable to repression. Individuals repress traumatic experiences in order to avoid dealing with the difficulty that they bring about.

To further clarify his Oedipus theory, Freud also constructed a second theory, Emma. Emma consists of two significant events, the first being before puberty and the second being after. In the first event, sexual abuse occurs but is unrecognized. The second event contains no sexual conduct, but some aspect which triggers the memory of the first event. For the first time, Emma distinguishes the first event as sexual, but represses the memory and places the trauma on the second event. Many aspects of Freud’s Oedipus theory and Emma, in respect to repression, are still considered in psychoanalytic theory and clinical psychoanalysis. Sarnoff described repression as a form of ego defense that works to suppress one tension in order to tend to a separate motive. In Oedipus Tyrannus, the main character, Oedipus, is fleeing from his kingdom after learning of his fortune that he will kill his father and marry his mother. On his way to Thebes, Oedipus runs into a band of men, resulting in him killing a stranger. Then, upon arrival to Thebes, the city is under the will of a Sphinx. Oedipus solved the riddle of Sphinx, forcing it from the community. The queen of the city marries Oedipus as a reward, making him the new king of Thebes, as the first king was murdered. Years later, Thebes again is plagued due to the arrival of the murder of the king. As the play progresses it is discovered that Oedipus is in fact the murder of the first king, who was also his biological father. Therefore, not only did he kill his father, once he rescued the city, Oedipus married his mother. None of this was evident to Oedipus, Freud argues, in the same way that Emma’s sexual abuse was not realized until after puberty. Puberty is a significant aspect of development as it introduces the individual to their sexuality. Oedipus projects his trauma to the plague of the city, while Emma projects her trauma to the second, nonsexual, post-puberty event. Both stories follow Sarnoff’s modern definition that one trauma is repressed in order to tend to a separate motive.

Jung developed an offshoot to the psychoanalytic theory that gives little priority to sexuality. While it is an important aspect of the individual, sexuality is not central to all individuals in their development. Jung instead values the individuals and, what he calls, the Self. The Self is unique to each person and is based on their experiences and the details of their life. Jung created a set of archetypes that contribute to the creation of each individual’s psyche. These archetypes are not obvious to the person, nor to outside individuals. Instead, archetypes are within the unconscious and are discovered indirectly by the individual's interactions in the outside world, as well as within in their dreams.

One commonality between Jung and Freud’s ideas is the importance of dreams. Freud assesses that dreams are a critical way that people process and deal with difficulties within their world and their psyche. Some occurrences are too difficult for the individual to process, and therefore it is repressed. Dreams allow for repressed problems to surface and let the individual workout those problems unconsciously. Often times, problems initially disguised themselves within the dream, then emerge as the scenario that the individual experienced within the day. Freud furthers his emphasis on sexuality in his dream theories, insisting that dreams which include cavities represent wombs or vaginas, while phallic symbols represent penises.

Jung does not emphasize sexuality in dream interpretations, rather supports that they are merely a way for the unconscious self to work out problems experienced by the awake self. While Jung believes that symbols exist in a dream, he leaves the interpretation up to the dreamer, rather than the analyzer. Jung insists that individuals know themselves best and are most capable of understanding the inner workings of their minds. Jung maintains that the individual is best equipped to understand themselves, but also acknowledges recurring symbols that are universal to all dreamers. The symbols revolve around binaries that are in opposition to each other, such as good versus evil, male versus female, and so forth. Jung claims individuals typically like to stick with one or the other, and that overlap causes confusion and distress within the psyche.

Modern psychoanalysis continues to use dream analysis and many of Freud’s ideas in their therapeutic sessions. Just as Jung, therapists today deemphasis sexual connotations in the dream and instead see dreams as a way for the unconscious to disguise and deal with issues presented in their life. While dreams sometimes reveal problems experienced within that day or week, other times dreams can mask events from the formative years. Modern therapists also see the discussion of dreams as an important practice. By conversing about details from a dream, the patient indirectly opens up the dream for interpretation and allows the patient to have more clarity about the events which occurred in their slumber. Modern therapists also take note of these dreams and make correlations between the unconscious happening and events within the waking hours.

Conclusion

This conclusion will look at all of the evidence presented in the above research, literature review, and discussion. It is the goal of this conclusion to bring all the loose ends together and give closure to the usefulness of the psychoanalytic perspective. Also, it is the hope that from this analysis and conclusion the importance of the psychoanalytic theory is revealed.

Since its birth, psychoanalysis has gone through several changes and continues to be molded by the field of psychiatry. In the late nineteenth century, when the psychoanalytic theory was new, it was a focus within neurobiology, not psychiatry. Instead, psychiatry was a field devoted to institutionalizing the mentally ill. As Freud worked and found connections between emotions, repression, and sexuality to the disturbing action of the mentally ill, neurobiology and psychiatry merged to form psychoanalytic perspectives. Much of Freud’s work came as a result of his personal struggles with the death of his father. In order to come to terms with himself and his relationship with his deceased father, Freud used the Greek tragedy, Oedipus Tyrannus, to explain his emotion. One of his focuses surrounded the question of the popularity of the tragedy throughout the centuries. Freud concluded that there must be an ingrained moral issue within the play and each human being. This assumption led to the development of the Oedipus complex, as well as the idea and value of repression.

After stabilizing his theories and building on them, Freud met Jung, who later became a beneficial pupil and college to Freud. Jung built upon the psychoanalytic theory until finally disputes between Freud and Jung became too much for them to continue working together. At this point, Jung and Freud split, allowing Jung to develop his own ideas about psychoanalytic theory. Jung’s theories differed from Freud’s, as Jung’s theories reiterated the value of the Self, rather than repression and sexuality. This should not infer that Jung did not see the importance of repression and sexuality, as Jung did value these aspects, but rather asserted that the most important aspect of psychoanalysis is the individual.

Now, just over two hundred years since the conceptualization of the psychoanalytic theory, modern psychoanalysis pull from Freud and Jung’s theories to understand their patients. Like Jung, psychoanalysis focuses on the individual. They value the patient's dreams, as well as their perception of the world around them. Psychoanalysis today also acknowledges repression as a key action that all individuals experience, even those who do not undergo a major traumatic event. Repression causes a multitude of effects within the individual’s daily life and, even as they attempt to hide their problem, it will eventually resurface.

References

Carpenter, S. (2000). Reading lessons: An introduction to theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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Danziger, K. (1982). Mid-nineteenth-century British psycho-physiology: A neglected chapter in the history of psychology. The Problematic Science. Retrieved from http://www.kurtdanziger.com/AshWoodward.pdf

Fredericksen, D. (1980). Two aspects of a Jungian perspective upon film: Jung and Freud; The psychology of types. Journal of University Film Association, 32(½). Retrieved from http://0-www.jstor.org.opac.fortlewis.edu/stable/20687507?seq=2

Galbis-Reig, D. (2003). Sigmund Freud, MD: Forgotten contributions to neurology, neuropathology, and anesthesia. Internet Scientific Publications, 3(1). Retrieved from http://ispub.com/IJN/3/1/11746

Gilman, S. (1987). The struggle of psychiatry with psychoanalysis: Who won? Critical Inquiry, 13(2). Retrieved from http://0-www.jstor.org.opac.fortlewis.edu/stable/1343494?seq=7

Sarnoff, I. (1960). Psychoanalytic theory and social attitudes. The Public Opinion Quarterly. 24(2) . Retrieved from http://0-www.jstor.org.opac.fortlewis.edu/stable/2746405?seq=11