PTSD on Victims of Terrorism, School Shootings, and Combat

Individuals who have experienced circumstances that have threatened or harmed their lives often present sequelae due to the anxiety triggered by such destructive life events. Oftentimes, these undesirable consequences protract for an extensive period of time. Such adverse events tend to interfere with the individual’s daily activities. These conflicting experiences are known as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a psychological condition where the victim endures a fear for their lives, as well as that of others. This distress remains even after the individual is out of the threatening situation. Examples of people who experience PTSD are those who have directly experienced terrorist attacks, school shootings, and combat.

People with PTSD are frequently viewed as feeble, self-insufficient, and self-dysfunctional. Consequently, such social stigmas are more likely to cause co-occurring disorders, such as depression, acute stress, and substance abuse problems. Aside from treatments provided by psychologists, people within the victim’s social circle have an immediate and direct impact on the individual’s recovery. For instance, comments and actions made by parents, siblings, friends, and colleagues can have a positive or negative effect on the individual experiencing PTSD. This research paper will focus on the causes and effects of PTSD on victims of terrorism, school shootings, and war. Additionally, this study will incorporate examples of social stigmas that accompany this type of disorder, including scientific recommendations to assist the victims. Understanding the causes and effects of PTSD in individuals who have experienced a personal encounter with terrorism, school shooting and combat highlights the intricacies of this psychological disorder and emphasizes the necessity to eradicate the social stigma expressed by the victim’s social circle.

Victims of Terrorism

The un-expectancy occurrence of death or a close encounter with it causes severe psychological disorders. Immediate survivors of terrorism and/or relatives of deceased victims have a higher risk of experiencing PTSD. A previous research study indicated the level of immediate contact with a catastrophe is more likely to be a risk factor affecting the evolution of PTSD (Galea, 2005, 84). Specifically, the victims that experienced negative physical consequences due to direct exposure to such events are more likely to demonstrate symptoms of PTSD than individuals who did not. The same study revealed a higher prevalence of PTSD in women than in men (Galea, 2005, 85). Although the study fails to elaborate on the reasons why the effects of PTSD are manifested at different levels between genders, such prevalence might encourage the social stigma of weakness in people with PTSD, especially in females.

In addition to the emotional experience exhibited as a result of terrorist attacks, such as anger and distress, victims experience a sense of mixed emotions caused by the memories of their negative experiences. For instance, victims often experience lapses of memories that transport them to the time of the event. While remembering such traumatic events, victims become emotionally transported to those particular moments. As a result, the re-experienced emotions create an anxious apprehension; thus increasing the negative effects of the trauma. In addition to psychological treatment, social support is imperative to the mental well-being and stability of the victim. This process is presented in figure 5.14presented in the Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach, as Barlow and Durand demonstrated a model of the causes of PTSD (2012, 159). Such emotional support will be more affected by the elimination of social stigma on PTSD through informed education.

Victims of School Shootings

Victims of school shootings are also highly susceptible to experiencing PTSD. The effects of these sudden hateful acts of aggression cause an epidemic of indelible consequences. Examples of the most common effects of school shootings are fear and anxiety (Böckler, 2013, 423). These effects have been present in primary and secondary victims resulting in long term consequences, such as depression, community isolation, and family altercations. Students are to return to school to continue their education. Their return presents an inevitable confrontation with the origin of the fear even if the child returns to a different school (Böckler, 2013, 423). The concern and terror of experiencing another life threatening event will more likely lead to acts of panic and terror. To avoid these traumatic experiences, students become absent from school activities. Such absence might last several weeks, including months.

The effects of PTSD are manifested differently based on the age of the child. Further research reveals that younger children are more likely to experience anxiety and insecurity when separated from their parents or caregivers (Gorman, Raines, & Sultan 2007, 436-437). This anxiety is known as separation anxiety. Conversely, older children are more likely to display feelings of anger, anguish, or apprehension (Gorman, Raines, & Sultan 2007, 436-437). These behaviors are manifestations of the fear of experiencing such massive traumatic events. Psychological treatment and social support are imperative for child victims. Early intervention will more likely decrease the likelihood of prolonging the adverse effects of PTSD, which can have duration of months and even years. If the causes that lead to PTSD are treated with psychological intervention initiated at a young age, positive results will be more likely to occur. This will more likely lower the interference of PTSD in the child’s life as a productive adult.

Victims of Combat

Prisoners of wars and concentration camps might be one of the highest-ranked events resulting in traumatic and terrifying flashbacks. A keen example is the victims and survivors of the Holocaust event. These individuals can testify and vividly describe their horrendous experiences as if they were currently reliving it. A recent study demonstrated how survivors of the Holocaust continue to manifest effects of PTSD. Specifically, 46.8 percent of survivors met the diagnosis of PTSD even after forty years of the atrocious event (Fink, 2010, 611). Additionally, psychological effects were superior in child survivors (Fink, 2010, 611). Furthermore, a difference in gender revealed that female victims presented preeminent indications of PTSD than male victims (Fink, 2010, 611). These findings reveal an association with results from previous research discussed in the current study. For instance, the effects of victims of school shootings revealed that child victims presented separation anxiety disorder. Similarly, child victims of the Holocaust present a higher risk of PTSD.

In addition to the effects of PTSD on victims of wars, prisoners of war have also revealed symptoms of PTSD. Particularly, veterans that have been imprisoned have revealed higher rates of PTSD and psychopathology than veterans who were not held captive (Kemshall & Pritchard, 2000, 184). Furthermore, the most reoccurring predictor of PTSD was exhibited through weight loss and torture while in captivity (Kemshall & Pritchard, 2000, 184). An example of behavior that is more likely to lead to such prolonged PTSD is the act of ruminating about the negative experiences. This tenacity of remembering and maintaining such vivid thoughts about their traumatic past is a testament to the brutality of the traumatic event. As a result, tendencies of social detachment are more likely to occur; thus, the possibility of rejecting psychological treatment and social support.

Social Support for Victims of PTSD and Research Summary

People that are uninformed about the effects of PTSD often reject and ignore victims with this psychological disorder. Consequently, victims feel worse about themselves. These additional negative feelings result in social isolation and an increase in the mental reoccurrence of events. Without the social support of people in the community, victims acquire tendencies of resorting to negative behaviors, such as substance and alcohol abuse. Subsequently, these destructive behaviors contribute to self-pity, lack of purpose, and an unproductive social individual. The National Center for PTSD suggests that people in the community engage in social interactions (Carreiro & Anderson, 2006, 330-331). Additionally, building loving and caring relationships is more likely to assist victims in the healing process (Carreiro & Anderson, 2006, 330-331). Social support from family, friends, and colleagues is helpful for the emotional and well-being of the victim.

Often times PTSD victims return to a home where negative behavior is present. For instance, some veterans are more likely to develop psychopathology when returning to a hostile and unsympathetic home environment (Carreiro & Anderson, 2006, 330-331). This study focused on the causes and effects of PTSD on victims of terrorism, school shootings, and war. Also, social stigmas and scientific recommendations were included. This paper presented some of the causes and treatments of PTSD in individuals who have experienced a personal encounter with terrorism, school shooting and combat while emphasizing the complexities of this psychological disorder and the necessity to eradicate the social stigma expressed by the social community. Furthermore, the development of co-occurring disorders was included in this study, as well as recommendations from the National Center for PTSD to relatives and those in the victim’s social circle.

References

Barlow, D. H., & Durand, V. M. (2012). Anxiety disorders. Abnormal psychology: an integrative approach (3rd Canadian ed., p. 159). Toronto: Nelson Education.

Böckler, N. (2013). Prevention and intervention concepts. School shootings international research, case studies, and concepts for prevention (p. 423). New York: Springer.

Carreiro, J., & Anderson, P. (2006). Web Site Review: National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: National Center for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder www.ncptsd.va.gov Ease of Use: Excellent. Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 19(5), 330-331. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from 10.1177/0897190006290344

Fink, G. (2010). Impact on war on civilians. Stress of war, conflict and disaster (p. 611). London: Academic.

Galea, S. (2005). The Epidemiology Of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder After Disasters. epidemiologic reviews, 27(1), 84-85.

Gorman, L. M., Raines, M. L., & Sultan, D. F. (2007). Disaster planning and response - Psychosocial Impact. Psychosocial Nursing for General Patient Care (2nd ed., pp. 436-437). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co..

Kemshall, H., & Pritchard, J. (2000). Working with victims of war. Good practice in working with victims of violence (p. 184). London: Jessica Kingsley Publisher.