Racial Justice and Cultural Oppression

Types of Racism

The four main types of racism are individual racism, institutional racism, direct racism, and indirect racism. Individual racism is what most people think about when they hear the word "racism." This includes racial slurs, taunting, name-calling, and verbal and/or physical abuse of a person based on his or her race. Individual racism comes from growing up with a sense of white superiority. Miller (1986) explains that this comes from a sense of social inequality wherein "the 'superior' party presumably has more of some ability or valuable quality" (p. 87). When people of majority status, such as white people in the United States, assume that they are superior to or better than people of other races, they tend to treat racial minorities with less respect than other white people. This can be done either consciously as displayed in racial slurs or unconsciously through unintended hurtful comments such as, "You act differently than most black people I know."

Institutional racism consists of patterns of social inequality in the judicial system, social associations, businesses, housing departments, healthcare, and other social institutions. A common example is racial profiling in legal situations. There are stunning statistics regarding levels of incarceration for black versus white men. "Among men born between 1965 and 1969, three percent of whites and 20 percent of blacks had served time in prison by their early thirties. The risks of incarceration are highly stratified by education. Among black men born during this period, 30 percent of those without college education and nearly 60 percent of high school dropouts went to prison by 1999" (Pettit & Western, 2004, p. 151). This shows institutional racism in both the legal and educational systems.

Direct and indirect racism refer to the way in which racial minorities are treated differently than white people. Direct racism is any overt way in which racial minorities are treated differently such as discrimination in hiring or school admissions. Indirect racism is more covert and occurs when a blanket rule or regulation affects racial minorities in a way that it does not affect the racial majority. An example of this would be not allowing head ware to be worn indoors in a certain environment. For most racial majorities, this would not be a huge inconvenience, but for people of Jewish or Muslim faith, wearing a yamaka or hijab is important to the religion. Therefore, this regulation unfairly affects these people in ways that it does not affect those in the majority status.

It is also important to touch on internalized racism which occurs as a combination of many types of more overt racism. Internalized racism occurs when people of color integrate racism they experience into their racial and cultural identity. They begin to believe what racism has taught them about themselves and their culture. "Some may try to treat their fellow subordinates as destructively as the dominants treat them. A few may develop qualities valued by the dominants… and forsake their own identification with fellow subordinates" (Miller, 1986, p. 92). In trying to integrate into the majority, these people lose much of their own racial identity.

Critical Race Theory and Education

Critical race theory (CRT) is a framework with which to examine the intricacies of institutionalized laws and policies and challenge the implications for race and racism. Delgado and Stefancic (2001) detail a few basic tenants of CRT (p. 7-10). First, racism is common but generally unacknowledged as per "color-blindness.” This term applies to the attempt to see everyone as the same which, in an attempt to treat everyone as equal, ignores important differences in race and, more importantly, tries to brush racism under the proverbial rug. Second, racism benefits the white majority. White privilege exists in subtle and hidden ways so that the white majority does not generally see how they are favored over racial minorities. Third, cultural oppression is not natural and inherent but rather a construct of thoughts and beliefs. If not for the generally accepted ideas on racial superiority, cultural oppression would cease to exist. Next, differential racism is the way that the majority culture has treated different races and cultures in different ways depending on the time period and current events, therefore homogenizing entire cultures. Lastly, the notion of "unique voice of color" tries to have individual members of a race speak for the entire race. This is offensive to people of color as it ignores individual differences in people regardless of similarity of racial identity.

In regards to education, the CRT movement addresses school hierarchy, discipline, affirmative action, testing, curriculum, and alternative and charter schools (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001, p. 7). The landmark Brown v. Board of Education case is one of the best examples of racism in education in terms of segregation. However, nearly 50 years later, segregation is still rampant in the educational system of the United in ways which are less intentional yet still apparent. "Although African Americans represent 12 percent of the national population, they are the majority in 21 of the 22 largest urban school districts" (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995, p. 55). There are hundreds of instances of black and Hispanic students packed too densely in urban school settings using outdated materials in poorly kept buildings. There are higher student-to-teacher ratios in these situations while suburban white students enjoy more teacher attention, higher-quality environments, and updated text books. Additionally, much curricula in the United States is more heavily focused on white achievements, relegating "black history" to February and focusing even less on Asian, Hispanic, and Middle Eastern cultures. There is rampant curriculum bias in terms of Native American history, celebrating Columbus' "discovery" of America and brushing over the flagrant decimation of native peoples.

The evolution of CRT has brought attention to inequalities in education. The multicultural education reform movement was designed to effect change in schools so that "students from diverse racial, ethnic, and other social-class groups will experience educational equality" (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995, p. 61). The goal of this movement was to reduce prejudice and encourage assimilation, but it is a flawed practice. Unfortunately, multicultural education has too often been reduced to trivial examples of other cultures as an "add-on" to curricula. The term "diversity" is often used to explain all types of difference including race, ethnicity, culture, ability, gender, and sexual orientation. However, this often brings all differences under the umbrella of diversity or multiculturalism, therefore ignoring the wide array of individual differences. "We unabashedly reject a paradigm that attempts to be everything to everyone and consequently becomes nothing for anyone, allowing the status quo to prevail" (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995, p. 62). This is highly applicable for social workers in that they must celebrate and acknowledge all forms of diversity instead of assuming that all minorities have similar experiences.

Scenario on Racism

In the situation described, it is likely that the younger Latino children are experiencing racial aggression from the older white children. When the white children accuse the two Latino boys of being violent despite the fact that the white children are being more aggressive, they are assuming that inherent social prejudice will see the Latino boys as being violent despite the facts. The two boys were likely confused and angry that they were being accused of being violent when they were merely trying to stand up for themselves. The white intern is most likely well-educated on racism and black oppression and therefore able to see the dynamics that are taking place. The dynamics occurring are most likely a form of racial microaggression, "brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults to the target person or group" (Sue et al., 2007, p. 273). It is likely that the older children do not realize that their actions are racist and oppressive. They probably grew up being taught in overt and covert ways to behave this way. The intern, seeing the greater implications of cultural oppression, hopes to make some change by discussion the situation with the supervisor. Unfortunately, the supervisor takes the same view as the parents and assumes that the Latino boys are the problem rather than considering that oppression and racial microaggression were occurring. The supervisor and parents are taking the view that Latino boys from other districts are bringing in violence to their school district.

A possible solution to this problem might be for the intern to approach the discussion of oppression with the supervisor, citing theories that explain this phenomenon. If the supervisor is able to see that this is occurring, it would be possible to collaborate on ways to teach the children, in age-appropriate ways, about racism and treating others fairly. It is important for the white children to be able to interact with the Latino children in ways that allow them to get to know the boys as people rather than as stereotyped members of a race.

Racial Identity Development Theory

Racial identity is “a sense of group or collective identity based on one’s perception that he or she shares a common racial heritage with a particular racial group” (Tatum, 1992, p. 9). Racial identity development theory explores the belief systems that form as a result of affiliating with a particular racial group. Identity development can be categorized as a stage theory, in which an individual must meet certain developmental tasks before moving to the next stage, or a phase theory, in which each phase has a general time period related to life cycle. There are five stages of racial identity development: Pre-encounter, Encounter, Immersion/Emersion, Internalization, and Internalization-Commitment (Tatum, 1992, p. 10). In the preencounter stage, the minority group assimilates the beliefs and values of the white culture and believes negative stereotypes about themselves. The encounter stage often occurs after an individual experiences direct racism. He or she is faced with the reality of racism and begins to identify as a member of a targeted group. The immersion/emersion stage is characterized by wanting to immerse oneself in one’s own culture while avoiding the majority white culture. In the internalization stage, the individual has developed a strong sense of racial identity but is no longer as closed off to white people who may be allies. Lastly, the internalization-commitment stage is when an individual can translate his or her identity into a worldview that includes identity aspects in addition to race. Wijeyesinghe and Jackson (2001) name the stages naivety, acceptance, resistance, redefinition, and internalization, but the definitions are similar (p. 15).

There is a subtle but important difference between acculturation and assimilation as they related to racial identity development. Acculturation is the process by which a person adjusts to the cultural norms of the dominant culture in an attempt to fit in. Assimilation is the process by which a person loses his or her cultural and racial identity and attempts to merge with the identity of the dominant culture. Acculturation is changing behaviors; assimilation is changing belief and identity systems.

Advocacy in the Field of Social Work

It is extremely important for students in the social work field to be thoroughly trained in social justice and advocacy. Many minorities do not have anyone in their lives who will advocate for their rights, and a social worker has access to services and information that can be of great use to a person of minority status. Education on cultural competency must be more than an umbrella approach which lumps all minority issues together. “The cultural competence model is largely ineffective and tends to equalize oppressions under a ‘multicultural umbrella,’ unintentionally promoting a color-blind mentality that eclipses the significance of institutionalized racism” (Abrams & Moio, 2009, p. 245). If a social worker approaches a client without appropriate training in cultural sensitivity, there is a good chance of alienating the client. However, with appropriate education on the differences between various races and their cultures, the social worker is able to approach a client with empathy, understanding, and effective solutions.

Most schools of social work have begun to prioritize race and racism as integral parts of curricula rather than a secondary issue to be touched on briefly. “The discussion in social work literature has moved from cultural sensitivity to cultural competence, the ability to integrate cultural knowledge and sensitivity with skills for a more effective and culturally appropriate helping process” (Weaver, 1998, p. 217). Understanding and respecting a client’s racial identity is a crucial element to understanding and correctly working with the presenting problem. Unfortunately, many people of racial minority have had experience with social workers who are not culturally competent, therefore gaining trust can be more difficult than with white clients. Additionally, some theories are not effective for people of color and can even harm the therapeutic relationship. Social workers must be educated on the specific values, ideals, and skills of different cultures in order to effectively work with racial minorities. With appropriate education and awareness, social workers can reach and help a much wider range of clients who identify as racial minorities.

References

Abrams, L., & Moio, J. (2009). Critical race theory and the cultural competence dilemma in social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 45(2), 245-261.

Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate IV, W. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers College Record, 97(1), 47-68.

Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2001). Introduction. Critical Race Theory: An introduction (pp. 1-27). New York, NY: New York University Press.

Miller, J. B. (1986). Domination and subordination. Toward a new psychology of women (2nd ed., pp. 86-92). Boston: Beacon Press.

Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004). Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. American Sociological Review, 69(2), 151-169.

Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M., Nadal, K. L., et al. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271-286.

Tatum, B. (1992). Talking about race, learning about racism: The application of racial identity development theory in the classroom. Harvard Educational Review, 62(1), 1-23.

Weaver, H. (1998). Indigenous people and the social work profession: Defining culturally competent services. Social Work, 44(3), 217-225.

Wijeyesinghe, C., & Jackson, B. (2001). Black identity development: Further analysis and elaboration. New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: A Theoretical and Practical Anthology (pp. 8-31). New York, NY: New York University Press.