Capstone Project: Underrepresentation of Hispanic Women in Marine Sciences in Monterey County

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

There is a shortage of Hispanic females pursuing careers in marine sciences, in particular in Monterey County, where more than 50% of the population is Hispanic. Women, and in particular minority women, are substantially less likely than men to become involved in the sciences. Women represent about 15.1% of undergraduate students who enroll in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) programs nation-wide (and men represent 29.3 %). Hispanic women enroll at an even lower rate of 4.59% (Hill, Corbett, & St. Rose, 2010, p. 8). But the end result is even more telling. The federal government employed 235,110 scientists and engineers in 2009. Of that number, only 4.4 percent were Hispanics (men and women) and only 1.1% were Hispanic women while 27.2% were white women. Out of 24,339 physical scientists, 449 were Hispanic men and 241 Hispanic women, while 5,068 were white women, and 15,552 white men (Burrelli & Falkenheim, 2011). 

There are a few major assumptions about the causes of Hispanic women not pursuing science careers, including the general lack of women within the sciences, stereotypes related to gender, race and ethnicity, gender and ethnic bias, perceptions on white privilege, and academic underachievement in the Hispanic community. According to Hill, Corbett, and St. Rose (2010) the causes of the lack of female involvement in the sciences are both social and environmental. It will thereby be assumed that the influences behind this gender gap are both institutionalized through policy and socialized through practice.  

This study analyzes possible policy alternatives which include a current policy of keeping the status quo, an incremental policy which seeks an increase in the outreach of programs designed to bring Hispanic girls to marine sciences, and a revolutionary policy which seeks substantial restructuring of Hispanic education in Monterey combined with intensive focus through a cooperative program between the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Young Women in Science Program and the Monterey public school system on bringing Hispanic women into marine sciences and STEM careers through early educational intervention and mentoring. The latter revolutionary policy is the recommended approach.

ABSTRACT 

There is a shortage of Hispanic women in the marine sciences in Monterey County. This paper discusses three alternative policies: the status quo, an increase in the outreach of programs designed to bring Hispanic girls to marine sciences, and a substantial restructuring of Hispanic education in Monterey combined with intensive focus on bringing Hispanic women into marine sciences and STEM careers through early educational intervention and mentoring, the latter policy the recommended approach.   

INTRODUCTION

There is a shortage of Hispanic women in the marine sciences in Monterey County. In 2005, Lawrence Summers, the President of Harvard University gave a speech in which, among other things, he talked about the phenomenon that women were underrepresented in STEM fields, in particular at the top of those fields (Summers, 2005). He offered some personal thoughts on the reasons, some of which are discussed herein, and when he speculated about women’s genetics he was met with a wave of surprise, and from some, derision.  

According to the National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] (2007), although in the past 25 years women have overtaken men as the majority of graduates from college, by as much as ten percentage points as of 2007, overall in the United States women remain significantly underrepresented in the fields of science, technology, engineering and math, the so-called STEM fields . 

There has been much debate about why this is, and it involves arguments about discrimination and lack of opportunity, socialization and aptitude and culture, paternalism and biology (Summers, 2005). Nor have there been any definitive answers. But women who have succeeded at the very top of their fields proclaim that women are completely capable of filling any job at any level in any field, given the motivation and chance to do so (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010).

In this paper, the underrepresentation of women is examined in marine sciences in general and Hispanic women in marine sciences in Monterey in particular. California has the largest Hispanic population of any state in the United States by number and percentage. Monterey's demographics show an even larger Hispanic population by percentage (Monterey County Quickfacts, 2012). However, there are few Hispanics and even fewer women Hispanics in marine sciences in California and in particular in Monterey.

Here, an analysis is offered generally as to women in STEM jobs, women in marine sciences, and programs in Monterey designed to encourage girls in the Hispanic community to pursue careers in marine sciences.

PROBLEM DEFINITION

Hispanic women are disproportionately underrepresented within the field of marine sciences , in particular in Monterey. This problem is twofold. First, Hispanics have not fared as well in education. A far lower percentage of Hispanics attend college than whites or Asians, and in high school, the overall performance of Hispanics in English, math, and science, and on the SAT is substantially below Whites and Asians. This substantial achievement gap between White students and Hispanic students is in part the result of a difference in the focus on education at home (Tienda & Mitchell, 2006, p. 179). Academic underachievement in the Hispanic community starts with the youngest preschoolers and their parents. According to Tienda & Mitchell (2006),

The confluence of limited English proficiency, low educational attainment, and other economic resources hinder many Hispanic parents from engaging their children in early literacy activities that have been shown to be important for later academic success… Moreover, low achievement scores are found as early as kindergarten and continue through middle school (Ibid, p. 214).

Tienda & Mitchell (2006) point out that White preschoolers are more likely to have begun pre-school in educational preschools at 3 years old, while the numbers do not even out between Whites and Hispanics until 4 or 5 years old, with many Hispanic children attending schools that serve little more than a daycare role. They also point out that these earlier years make a difference in later academic performance, in particular, reading and writing, and in mathematics (Ibid, p. 184). The academic underachievement continues through to minority high schoolers who drop out, are underrepresented in AP courses, or do not have the ability to attend college (Ibid, p. 184-211).  This vicious cycle for Hispanics in education, in fact, results in the unavailability of Hispanic mentors in STEM fields. Without some intervention in the process to break the cycle of academic failure, there will never be those mentors to lead Hispanic youth toward STEM fields. For this, sociological, and other reasons there are fewer Hispanic graduates from college and fewer still with graduate degrees, making the available pool of qualified Hispanic candidates for marine sciences jobs very limited. (Gándara, 2008; Gasbarra & Johnson, 2008).

Secondly, there is an abundance of impediments to all women entering STEM fields. These impediments begin with a sociological prejudice against associating girls with science, technology, engineering and math, and a cultural custom of teaching little girls they are not cut out for STEM subjects. While women have made enormous strides in the past three decades in choosing whether to have a career or a family or both, there remains a prejudice in favor of putting girls behind the stove instead of behind a desk. There are also impediments to little girls finding women mentors who can encourage them to succeed, in particular in STEM fields (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010). 

This almost vicious cycle starts with toddlers and repeats itself when as mothers, women repeat the same discouragement by painting the same stereotypes as their mothers did, encouraging or excusing disinterest in STEM subjects because their daughter is a little girl (American Association of University Women, 2004). Another impediment to women taking up roles in STEM fields results from a hiring bias, where top positions in STEM fields are often filled by white male managers, who have a statistical tendency to hire candidates just like themselves (Summers, 2005; Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010).  

Women, and in particular minority women, are substantially less likely than men to become involved in the sciences. Women represent about 15.1% of undergraduate students who enroll in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) programs nation-wide (and men represent 29.3 %). Hispanic women enroll at an even lower rate of 4.59% (Hill, Corbett, & St. Rose, 2010, p. 8). But the end result is even more telling. The federal government employed 235,110 scientists and engineers in 2009. Of that number, only 4.4 percent were Hispanics (men and women) and only 1.1% were Hispanic women while 27.2% were white women. Out of 24,339 physical scientists, 449 were Hispanic men and 241 Hispanic women, while 5,068 were white women, and 15,552 white men (Burrelli & Falkenheim, 2011). 

So, for Hispanic women, taking positions in marine sciences is particularly difficult because of these biases, by gender and race, and in addition, because of the scholastic challenges which appear to exist in the Hispanic community beginning in elementary school (Gasbarra & Johnson, 2008). This resulting low number of females in the STEM positions precludes the presence of role models for girls to look to for inspiration (Summers, 2005).  Thus, even despite policies such as the Women in Science and Technology Equal Opportunity Act passed by Congress in 1980 (Handelsman et. al., 2005), inequality has largely persisted. 

BACKGROUND

For Hispanic women, the barriers to entering the marine sciences field are formidable. Not only is this area of science dominated by males, a pervasive phenomenon repeated throughout the STEM fields (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010, p. 13-14), but Hispanics have seen underachievement in grades K through 12 nationwide, and on the SAT test. Hispanics have also had lower proportional high school graduation, college attendance, and college graduation, and graduate studies and receipt of graduate degrees than Whites and Asians in the United States (Gasbarra & Johnson, 2008; Gándara, 2008 ). A solution to these phenomena is particularly important in California, the state with the highest percentage of Hispanics in the country (Monterey Country Quickfacts, 2012). 

Male domination in STEM fields has become the norm (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010, p. 15-18; Summers, 2005). Women with equivalent competence and qualifications to their male counterparts are less likely to rise to the same organizational level as their male peers and unlikely to receive equal compensation for the same job (Heilman, 2001).  

Only one in five individuals who receive bachelor’s degrees in physics, engineering, and computer science is a woman and fewer still continue on to graduate school programs and then pursue careers in these fields, furthering the gender inequality across all of the STEM fields  (Ibid). Women are less involved in the sciences than men for a number of reasons including a lack of institutional support resulting from long-entrenched systems in education and commercial enterprises centered around male-dominated decision-making, a lack of financial equality or opportunities and advancement due to long-held biases and unrealistic (in some cases intentionally so) expectations of women in their positions, and pervasive social and environmental factors stereotyping women almost from the moment a little girl’s parents decide to decorate their daughter’s room in pink and buy her a toy oven instead of a microscope or a chemistry set (Hill, Corbett, & St. Rose, 2010; Summers, 2005). 

Over the past 25 years, women have made tremendous strides in participating in the education process, competing evenly with men, and in fact surpassing them in terms of the numbers graduating from college (NCES, 2007). This success has translated into a much larger percentage of women in the general workforce, but unfortunately for reasons discussed below, not into anything approaching equality, particularly in the STEM fields. While women's achievements in education may have arrived at parity, their ability to get an equal number of STEM jobs and to get STEM jobs of equal stature, equal pay, and in top positions has not materialized (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010).

Hill, Corbett & St. Rose (2010) isolated three contributing themes to this phenomenon, the myth that men are mathematically superior and innately better suited to STEM fields, the perception that girls are not interested in STEM, and the existence of certain issues in the STEM workplace affecting women’s choice to pursue a STEM career, such as work-life balance, bias, and a number of others (Ibid, p. 19).  These themes have in turn contributed to three profound categories of obstacles Hispanic women face in entering careers in STEM fields, and in the marine sciences: (1) Lack of institutional support; (2) Gender and race wage discrimination and inequity; (3) Social and environmental factors. 

Lack of Institutional Support 

As of 2010, Hispanics made up 16% of the U.S. population, but one-third of all Hispanics (just over 14 million) lived in California. Hispanics made up nearly 40% of California’s population, roughly the same as Whites. African Americans made up 6.6% and Asians 13.6% (“U.S. Census Bureau “Estimates”, 2010). By contrast, in 2008, 71% of teachers in California were White, and only 18% were Hispanic (Boser, 2011). The problem is most pronounced in California where the gap is widest in the United States (Boser, 2011). And the issue is further intensified in Monterey County, where Hispanics form a majority of the population (56.1% Hispanic to 32.1% White), and students form a large majority of the students enrolled in all schools (74% Hispanic to 16% White). There exists a large gap between the percentage of Hispanic students and the percentage of Hispanic teachers (74% Hispanic students vs. 23% Hispanic teachers and 16% White students vs. 66.3% White teachers) (Kotowski, 2012).

This is important because one of the key conclusions regarding minority student performance identified by Boser in his 2011 study of teacher diversity was that lower achievement and poor performance on national exams by minority students was correlated with a lack of minority teachers (“A recent review of empirical studies also shows that students of color do better on a variety of academic outcomes if they’re taught by teachers of color” (p. 1)). 

Another reason this gap is important is that mentoring has been postulated as having significant effects on youth’s educational outcome (Darline, et al., 2006). Boser (2011) confirms the significance of the racial similarity between student and teacher in the effects of mentoring on students: “Our nation’s student body is rapidly diversifying, but our teaching workforce has not kept up with the trend. This must change. Students of all backgrounds deserve teachers of all backgrounds” (p. 11).

In their study on the effects of ethnicity, race and gender on mentoring, Darline, et al. (2006) concluded that individual differences in gender, ethnicity, and age can shape the needs and characteristics of protégés, the processes through which mentoring may influence protégés’ developmental trajectories, and the social networks into which the mentors enter....In this review, we have suggested that individual differences related to gender, race, ethnicity, culture, and development may influence a youth’s experiences of mentoring (p. 776).

Thus, in California, and in particular in Monterey, where there is a very substantial gap between Hispanic students and Hispanic teachers according to Kotowski (2012) (74% Hispanic students, 23% Hispanic teachers), the ability to provide adequate mentoring in general and in STEM fields in particular will likely be thwarted without further change to the system and “trajectory”. As Gasbarra & Johnson (2008) point out, noting that Hispanic students need Hispanic role models, “Interviewees continually stressed the need for more role models in the STEM fields. Participants believed that seeing more Hispanic teachers and science professionals in the schools would help Hispanic students appreciate the diversity of choices before them, as well as their own potential” (2008).

This gap between the percentage of Hispanic students and Hispanic teachers means that there is an institutional problem in providing support to Hispanics in general, and to Hispanic women in particular in education. Also, even when women are in fact part of the institutional system, there are other impediments to them being able to offer the most effective mentoring. In their analysis of how to get more Hispanics to enter STEM fields based on interviews with 19 renowned Hispanic STEM professionals, Gasbarra and Johnson (2008) report in “The Prospects for the Latina Scientist” that …Latinas are outpacing their male counterparts when it comes to attending and completing college. Under-represented in the STEM fields, female scientists and engineers are in high demand, many told us, but the male-dominated environment of high-level science positions can be a less than hospitable atmosphere for women of all cultures (p. 9).

Thus, even Hispanic professionals see the convergence of obstacles, for women, for STEM opportunities, for Hispanics in education, for Hispanics in STEM jobs, and for Hispanic women in STEM fields (Ibid). 

Women may face increased difficulties due to institutionalized practices in higher education and also the professional environment. One factor that influences this is the institutionalization of science-related jobs as being considered high-powered or high demanding.  This has influenced the advent of the high-powered job hypothesis, science-related jobs included, which advances that such positions require a significantly greater amount of time and commitment than traditional jobs, oftentimes in the area of 80 hours each week, according to Summers’ postulation, forcing women considering such positions to make a choice between a family or a career, making them potentially unfit for women (Summers, 2005). In fact, men outnumber women five-to-one in STEM fields (Summers, 2005).  The institutionalization of patriarchal practices has added weight to the high-powered job hypothesis through policy informed by the masculine perspective.  

For societies that are traditionally patriarchal, childcare and family life are oftentimes the responsibilities of women. To encourage female involvement in industries that place additional demands upon them, it is necessary that support is provided. Such support could be instituted through the establishment of childcare provisions and means to enable work and family life to be mutually supportive as opposed to exclusive, but this support is rarely offered (O’Connor, 2008).  This is reinforced by the fact that women who have reached high-level positions in the field of science are often unmarried and without children (Summers, 2005). Furthermore, in Hispanic culture, the pressures for women to take responsibility for family care are significant and “traditional gender roles continue to discourage young Hispanic women from pursuing careers of their own” (Gasbara & Johnson, 2008, p. 9). Thus it would appear that the pressures for Latinas to take up a traditional role in the family and the absence of effective childcare and support from family and Hispanic significant others can also have a significant effect on the choices Hispanic women make in choosing a high-level STEM career.

Wage Discrimination and Inequity 

There are both social and financial challenges faced by women in the scientific workplace, and to a greater extent by Hispanic women. First, according to Beede, Julian & Langdon, et al. (2011), as of 2009 women held only 24% of STEM jobs (p. 1). Women employed in the scientific fields also leave their positions at a significantly higher rate than men. The causes of this are many, although dissatisfaction with their compensation and a lack of promotional opportunities are at the top of the list (Hunt, 2010).  Gender inequalities in pay and compensation are particularly prevalent in organizations that are lacking in formalized systems of personnel practices (Stainback, Tomaskovic-Devey, & Skaggs, 2010).  The variation within a firm related to its gender earnings inequalities often is dependent upon the degree to which payment systems are formalized, with formalized systems better at effecting wage equity (Elvira & Graham, 2002).  

Women overall in the US receive lower compensation than men for the same educational level, and a similar disadvantage, though at a higher pay scale in STEM fields. For instance, as of 2010, average weekly earnings for men with a bachelor’s degree or higher was $1,330 compared with $986 for women with the same qualifications (“NCES, 2010). These differences are even more pronounced for Hispanic women with graduate degrees. For instance, the average salary of white males with a graduate degree in 2005 was $81,000. The average salary of a Hispanic female with a graduate degree was $50,800 (NCES, 2005). Moreover, as of 2009, in STEM fields there was also a gender gap of 14% in earnings ($36.34/hour for men vs. $31.11/hour for women), though a smaller gap than for non-STEM jobs (21% gap) (Beede, et al, 2011, p. 4). 

As discussed above, in Hispanic culture (and to some extent in American culture in general) women are expected to maintain a more significant role in childcare and family care. Also, long hours may be expected for a successful STEM career, though there is a very significant wage difference between the genders, and even more so between men and Hispanic women. As a result, the incentives for women to take up careers in STEM fields do not seem yet to be particularly strong. 

Social and environmental factors

There is not only a financial and economic impact, but also social, and in a broader sense societal. The lack of female involvement within STEM fields has come about through social and environmental forces as well. These forces include a pervasive cultural bias and stereotype against any notion of associating females with STEM subjects (even though women have been successful in astronomy and astrophysics), a bias not limited to males, but also endemic in females following along with tradition as well, on the general theory that women are not interested in STEM subjects. The other pervasive bias is a stereotype that holds that males have superior intellectual capability of dealing with mathematics and science, and hence are more suited for STEM positions than women. 

The powerful effect of these biases is not limited to the hiring and performance evaluations of women by males. Perhaps they are most pervasive with the effect even at an early age on girls’ own thinking of how STEM relates to them and self-esteem. “Two stereotypes are prevalent: girls are not as good as boys in math, and scientific work is better suited to boys and men. As early as elementary school, children are aware of these stereotypes and can express stereotypical beliefs about which science courses are suitable for females and males” (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010, p. 38). 

Another set of biases holds that women are the subject of a panoply of social requirements regarding family and child-rearing that do not apply to men, and hence affect a woman’s ability to meet the needs of positions requiring heavy commitment (Ibid, p. 19).  Stereotyping such as this is reflective of status beliefs and serves to reinforce status inequalities applied to members of groups with categorical differences, whether gender- or race-based (Stainback, Tomaskovic-Devey, & Skaggs, 2010).  Women in both the UK and the US report that their work requires greater effort than for men, highlighting the influence of gender stereotypes upon perceptions of competence. Such stereotypes in society serve to alter the evaluation bias of performance within workplaces of all industries (Gorman & Kmec, 2007).  

Moreover, research has shown that there is even an implicit stereotype regarding the association between STEM and males that most people, even those who purportedly reject the notion that gender bias exists are unaware of. Mahzarin Banaji, professor of social ethics at Harvard University, co-designed a test for this implicit stereotyping (in other words, an unconscious preference) which has been taken by more than half a million participants from all over the world, showing a 70% implicit stereotyping of the connection between males and STEM (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010, p. 76). As to the effect of this implicit stereotype, Banaji said

The degree to which the idea that girls aren’t good at science is in the air we breathe, the more likely it is to show up in patterns of attitudes, beliefs, and performance. If you look around you and only a fraction of those doing science come from group A, what are members of group A and B to think? It doesn’t take too many neurons to figure out that perhaps group A isn’t so good at science (Ibid, p. 78).

Starting with the idea that women, in general, are the subject of persistent bias in the area of STEM fields, additional obstacles arise in connection with Hispanic women’s prospects for achieving STEM careers. Bell and Nkomo (2001) found in a study of corporate executives that white women are generally deemed more competent than women of color. In some industries, particular positions are deemed to require traits that are more masculine than feminine. Within such situations, stereotypical behavior becomes the norm, with this practice having taken on a societal character. The field of science is predominantly occupied by white men (no better proof than in government, where white men occupy 77.7% of the positions as federal scientists). Women, particularly minority women, are thereby constantly reminded through the demographics of the scientific field what they can perceive every day, that is they are different and not preferred (Ong et. al., 2005). This bias, implicit and explicit, and among the other social factors discussed, translate into a lack of women scientists in general, particularly Hispanic female scientists, and the dearth of this demographic also has translated into a lack of mentors who might be able to help change these misperceptions.  

STAKEHOLDERS AND INTERESTS

STEM fields will continue to grow exponentially and are essential to the economic growth and conservation policies of the State of California, and the people of Monterey. Also, these fields will continue to provide an ever-expanding percentage of jobs into the foreseeable future. These givens, therefore, are crucial to Hispanics, who make up almost 40% of the population of California and more than 56% of the population of Monterey (Monterey County Quickfacts, 2012). 

Consequently, there are various stakeholder groups who are concerned about the lack of Hispanic women involved in marine sciences in Monterey. These groups include (1) institutions, such as public and private schools and colleges, private companies, government departments, including local and state departments of education, public and private marine facilities, such as the Monterey Bay Aquarium (the “Aquarium”), and programs for young women, such as Young Women in Science (YWS); (2) Females, including Hispanic women, elementary, junior high and high school girls of all ethnic and racial origins, but in particular here, Hispanics, women in STEM fields, including Hispanic women, female Hispanic STEM professionals who serve as Mentors, and other female mentors; and  (3) teachers in general and Hispanic teachers in particular at all levels of education, from pre-school to university, and parents of girls and in particular Hispanic girls. 

Each of these groups has different needs and perspectives regarding this problem and different roles in and preferences for possible solutions. The following sections discuss the perspectives of each stakeholder group and their interests in this issue.

Institutions

In order to maximize the output of an organization, it is important to understand that not only are performance and performance-related concerns important but that providing opportunities and realizing value for stakeholders are also central to any organization’s credibility and worth (Beer, 2003).  

There are basically two kinds of institutions involved in this issue, namely those institutions that are involved in employing or facilitating the work of Hispanic women in marine science, or benefiting from those services, and those involved in educating Hispanic girls and women or involved in abetting Hispanic women’s entry into the field of marine sciences and/or combatting some of the fundamental roadblocks to their becoming involved in marine science.

The first group of institutions would include marine sciences research facilities and colleges and universities with departments involved in marine research and science, and commercial enterprises with marine science requirements or providing marine science-related services, such as the Aquarium and Eco Company, a television production company with a national TV program involving youngsters in ecological issues and activism. Eco Company partners with the Aquarium in introducing marine sciences and environmental issues to youngsters. The second group of institutions would include public and private nursery, elementary, junior high and high schools, public and private colleges and universities, and other educational institutions with programs aimed at educating youngsters, and in particular Hispanics, and in this case young Hispanic girls about the possibilities of developing interest in marine science, such as Aquarium’s YWS program.

As for female Hispanics looking to get into, or those who are already in the field of marine sciences, a lack of equality in employment opportunities in marine sciences for women and large discrepancies between compensation for qualified Hispanic women and White males (a 14% disparity, as mentioned above) could discourage and inhibit these women from either remaining in the field, or taking the long road to becoming a marine science professional in a high level position (Beede, et al., 2011, p. 4; Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010). 

In order for female involvement in the sciences, and in particular marine sciences to increase, it is necessary for institutions and organizations to initiate policies to support women. This could start with gender and race equality in hiring and compensation (Ibid), and establishing programs to provide opportunities for professional women, and in particular Hispanic women, to serve as mentors to Hispanic girls to encourage them and demonstrate to them that there are opportunities in marine sciences.  (Beede, 2011, p. 8; Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010, p. 49-50). 

As to the second group of institutions, those involved in education, and in particular the education of women, including Hispanic women, the function of these organizations and institutions is to educate a sufficient number of Hispanic women to take up positions in the marine sciences fields in Monterey. This does not mean that only such institutions within the confines of Monterey are involved because qualified marine sciences professionals can come from universities all over the country. But the key concept is the University is the penultimate step in the process, not the first. The first step on the long road to becoming a female Hispanic marine sciences professional begins in pre-school, or elementary school, because of the insidious stereotypes, that convey the implicit belief by both men and women, that girls are not suited for STEM fields begins there, or perhaps even before, with implanting in a Latina’s mother’s and father’s minds the fact that these fields are not for girls (Gasparra & Johnson, 2008, p. 7-9). In their article based on interviews with  Hispanic STEM scientists, Gasparra & Johnson (2008) note three similar views of the “traditional gender roles” prevalent in the Hispanic community:

Some also felt that traditional gender roles continue to discourage young Hispanic women from pursuing careers of their own. There is also unfortunately still—not all over the board—but there are still some family social pressures, especially regarding females about ‘Why do you even want to study? Look for a husband.’ I do believe that there is a gender gap in these fields, and again it goes to the stereotypes that exist within the Latino community; women should not be doing these fields that are greatly perceived as fields that only men should go into. (p. 9).

This situation is one of the fundamental issues affecting the key stakeholder, the Hispanic girl who has or could have the potential to become a scientist if only given the right stimulus and sufficient encouragement both at school, and perhaps equally importantly, at home (Ibid). 

The entire education system in California and in Monterey in particular, pre-school to university, has a responsibility to provide sufficient educational opportunities to Hispanics in general (and Latinas in particular), to encourage an interest in STEM-related subjects, instill self-confidence and academic competence, and stimulate a love for learning. While educational institutions cannot take the place of parents, educating Hispanic parents about the opportunities for their daughters to take up relatively well-paying jobs in STEM fields and marine sciences would appear to be an important institutional role designed to benefit the ultimate stakeholder, the Hispanic daughter (Tienda & Mitchell, 2006, p. 184-211). As the demographics in the State of California change, Hispanics become a key group come election time, and the needs of the Hispanic community will continue to serve as a more important election topic, ultimately potentially having an effect on policy considerations, as evidenced in the recent presidential election, where immigration issues were in the forefront because of the key Hispanic electorate. Institutions such as the Aquarium and Eco Company can play important roles in this process as stakeholders by engaging with the very substantial Hispanic community and accommodating language and cultural differences, and by hiring Hispanic professionals. In addition, these institutions could look to government and private sources for funding to address issues affecting the Hispanic community. 

Females

Female Hispanics in Monterey County are the critical stakeholders in this case, and their interests are twofold. There are biases, specifically gender bias and racial bias, and there are also academic deficiencies in the performance of Hispanics in the current education system which makes achieving an undergraduate degree or graduate degree in a STEM field, leading to a position in marine sciences, a formidable task for any female Hispanic in the United States and in particular in California (Tienda & Mitchell, 2006, p. 188-217).

The young Latina is likely to experience daunting impediments to getting a good education from the outset of her schooling. In fact, according to Tienda & Mitchell (2006), the beginning obstacles occur earlier, when most White children are learning at home before they attend pre-school, and Hispanic children are likely not. Also, a key element in achievement in school is the amount of involvement by parents before formal preschool or kindergarten begins (Ibid, p. 181). However, Tienda & Mitchell’s research indicates that compared to non-Hispanics, Hispanic children are less likely to be read to. Moreover, where the primary language at home is Spanish, families normally have particularly low rates of literacy activities and 50% fewer families where both parents speak only Spanish participated in reading to children at least three times per week (Ibid). For a Latina, the ultimate stakeholder, the cards appear stacked against her almost from the outset. She needs special attention. Because she cannot get the academic push and the academic help she would need to be able to graduate from high school, attend and graduate from college (perhaps the first in her family to do so), and go on to take a STEM job, this Latina needs someone to show her the way, a mentor with the right qualifications, discussed below. (Ibid).

In addition, because in Hispanic families young girls are not always encouraged to seek further education, the Latina will need someone to intercede if necessary at home to help her parents understand the importance of her education for her, and likely for them in the future. As stakeholders, the parents of the Latina want financial assistance for the child’s education, but in these days of austerity, such assistance is becoming harder to find, though Head Start funds are available from the Federal government for now. They also want bilingual classes, as they likely would participate more in their child’s education if they didn’t have to interact with the system in English. This may be easier in California, where the Hispanic population is the largest group in the state. 

Teachers and Mentors

Increasing the number of Hispanic women in marine sciences requires dedication from their teachers.  In this case, teachers fall into two general categories, those who care and those who do not.  In a state in which Hispanics constitute a large percentage of the population, and have academic challenges, teachers in the system and at different levels have different stakes in the outcome. There are teachers who do not wish to take on the additional burdens of educating bilingual students who fare better in Spanish than English. These teachers may have little or no connection to Hispanic students (Hill, Corbett & St. Rose, 2010; Gasbarra & Johnson, 2008), and this plays some role in Hispanic students’ performance in school. Other teachers take on the extra burdens of helping Hispanic children by, in addition to teaching, acting as mentors (Ibid). For those who are not committed, it is an issue of compensation and hours or a lack of training and language capability, but for others who are, it is a labor of love (Ibid). 

ALTERNATIVES

Introduction

In order to address the local problem of the dearth of Hispanic women in the marine sciences in Monterey, a twofold policy should be developed to (1) intervene in the Hispanic community earlier in a child’s education to achieve higher academic performance by Hispanics in Monterey public schools (in order to help make more students available to pursue STEM careers), with an emphasis on STEM subjects; and (2) to recruit Hispanic girls as early as possible for orientation in STEM subjects, and ultimately careers in marine sciences.  Note that even if these solutions are implemented, the cultural barriers in the Hispanic community to women undertaking such occupations may still interfere with Hispanic women’s dreams of STEM careers. It is possibly a generational issue, with later English speaking generations of Hispanic women choosing whether to change cultural norms and stereotypes for girls and women or cling to the “old ways.” There will be no definitive answer unless and until the policies are implemented, but without change, only the unacceptable status quo can be guaranteed.

The current policy provides a one-time opportunity through the YWS program to junior high school girls, including in particular Hispanic girls to attend summer camp, meet women scientists, and learn about marine sciences. However, there is no follow-up, and while the program is stimulating, the effects do not appear to be long-lasting. Without making changes, there is little likelihood the absence of Hispanic women in the marine sciences in Monterey will change. One suggested incremental policy would add a follow-up to the existing YWS program to encourage participants to continue learning about STEM subjects, including the marine sciences and maintain contact with the YWS program. A more robust “revolutionary” alternative would change the Monterey County education policies at a county level to address Hispanic academic deficiencies, and change the YWS program to interface more directly with the Monterey County school system to catch young Latinas at a much earlier age and also to add university elements to the program for long term mentoring by Hispanic college women and professionals.

Alternative 1: Current Policy – Current YWS Program

The Aquarium is located in Monterey Bay and has a wide variety of exhibits and programs regarding marine wildlife and conservation. The Aquarium’s programs include field trips, teaching tools, science curricula for grades PreK-12, and many others activities to provide a friendly and educational atmosphere for students of all ages (Monterey Bay Aquarium, 2013). 

The Aquarium’s current policy is to introduce middle school girls (including in particular Hispanic girls) to marine sciences with the aim of enhancing the chances those girls will assume careers in marine sciences or in STEM fields. Established in 1999, the Aquarium’s YWS program seeks to implement this policy by connecting middle school girls with female scientists and educators through hands-on science-based activities. The YWS program is held at the Aquarium for three weeks each summer, where young girls learn about the ecosystem, plants, animals, habitats as well as environmental threats unique to Monterey Bay. The YWS program also seeks to recruit girls from underprivileged populations, specifically the local Hispanic population, as they are highly underrepresented in STEM careers. Under the current policy, the Aquarium’s YWS program contacts middle schools in Monterey County to recruit 12-15-year-old girls into the YWS program, with a special focus on Hispanic girls. 

Limitations:

The YWS program does not have a dependable means by which to actually implement the policy of bringing Hispanic girls in Monterey into the marine sciences or into STEM careers. The current policy lacks a follow-up mechanism to see how graduates of the three-week program progress throughout their academic and post-academic lives. In 2013, the YWS program does not yet have a system in place to keep in touch regularly with graduates of the program, and thereby continue nurturing STEM skills and an affinity for marine sciences throughout their academic careers. The program also does not monitor whether or not graduates of the program come back for a second/third year. There is thus no means to judge the effectiveness of the program or determine areas for improvement. 

Alternative 2: Incremental Policy – Expanded YWS Program

The proposed incremental policy would expand the Aquarium’s current policy by mandating a more intensive interaction between the YWS program and the target girls (including Hispanic girls), changing the Aquarium’s current policy by implementing tracking of YWS graduates and by encouraging YWS graduates to get involved in community conservation projects. The objectives of the proposed incremental policy would include following-up with the graduates of the YWS program in order to keep Hispanic and other graduates interested in marine sciences and STEM subjects, to assess the effectiveness of the program and determine the need for and scope of any improvements. The incremental policy objectives would also involve continuing to involve the graduates after graduation from YWS in various aspects of the YWS program and with the Aquarium in order to continue attracting these girls to the marine sciences and STEM fields. Implementing the policy would include the following activities: 

1. YWS girls meet female scientists and potential mentors from different disciplines in order to learn about their careers and experiences in the field of science; 

2. YWS girls participate in science activities, which meet the grades 6 – 9 course content curriculum, utilizing the Aquarium resources; 

3. YWS girls are encouraged to participate in community conservation efforts and environmental stewardship. 

4. A tracking system is implemented by YWS to determine how YWS graduates fare after the 3-week program to provide verification that the program is a success, or provide indications of how further improvements can be made.

1. Meeting female scientists from different disciplines:

The Monterey Bay Aquarium can regularly rotate their own female scientists while getting in touch with local female scientists and most importantly Hispanic female scientists where possible. Contacting conservation and environmental studies female professors and research scientists from nearby prestigious institutions such as Stanford University to participate in daylong training sessions would help bring vibrancy and intrigue to the program. Meeting real-life examples of what a career in science actually looks like will hopefully inspire young girls to pursue similar paths (Lewis, 2012). However, the training sessions will not only focus on the work itself that the visiting female scientists do. The scientists will discuss in what ways a career in science has affected their personal lives, professional outcomes, and conception of life. This would be a good place to discuss the “perks” of a career in science in addition to the actual scientific portion of the work that is involved in hopes of addressing the misconception that a career in science is too “geeky” or boring. Visiting scientists can also discuss the benefits and responsibilities of environmental stewardship to encourage young girls to pursue leadership positions within the sciences.

2. Assuring that participation and learning are consistent with grades 6-9 public school science curricula:

The YWS program can be designed to encourage young girls to pursue STEM subjects in high school and beyond. It is therefore important that the program’s curriculum serves as a complement to the local public school science curricula. Doing so will require that YWS meet with the Monterey Bay school district to discuss ways in which to maximize the benefit of science-based learning.

3. Encourage community engagement and environmental stewardship:

Much of conservationism is best pursued outside of the classroom and beyond the YWS program. The YWS program will be designed to teach students how to implement environmental programs within participants’ own communities, how to encourage their families to participate in recycling materials such as aluminum and environmental initiatives while mentoring them on how to become engaged with their local communities. The focus will be placed on fostering a sustainable approach and transformation of individual as well as communitarian habits in the interest of marine conservation. The YWS program can, therefore, be designed to help connect their graduates to environmental organizations within their communities whether it be in the form of internships or volunteer opportunities. Such internships will help young girls develop a track record of conservationism as well as jump-start their resumes, which will help make them competitive in the marketplace, but more importantly, will give them an edge in the college admissions process. 

This is another way in which particular attention to Hispanic needs can be implemented in accordance with the incremental policy. To the extent possible, participants can be mentored in reaching out to their respective Hispanic communities in Spanish for conservation purposes, thereby using their newly acquired knowledge in their native language, cementing concepts and emotional appeal through being able to work in a STEM activity in their native language. Using their bilingual capability gives them an advantage over their non-Hispanic peers, who might not be able to accomplish as much in those communities using only English.

4. Keeping track 

The only way to see how effective the YWS program is, in the long run, to maintain regular contact with its graduates. A metrics system can be developed that follows its graduates’ academic careers, how well they perform in high school, whether or not they choose to take STEM-related AP/Honors courses, college admission rates as well as undergraduate major choice. The YWS program can encourage and/or incentivize its graduates to report back to them on an annual basis to explain their involvement in conservation in their communities, how they view marine conservation and their attitudes towards environmental sustainability. Not only will these reports help the aquarium understand and identify what they are doing right, but it will also help identify areas of needed improvement. It will also help the aquarium in its efforts to market the YWS program to a larger and more competitive audience. 

Limitations: 

The alternative policy # 2 while augmenting the current policy would still be limited in scope and time, preventing it from maximizing the increase in the number of Hispanic women in marine sciences in Monterey. Since the YWS program would only be implemented in grades 6-9, it could be considered both too late (because it does not recruit girls until 6th grade, when they have already been exposed throughout elementary school to the concept that girls are not supposed to like STEM subjects), and not late enough because grades 10-12 are not included in the YWS program, so as to follow-up with participants throughout their secondary education to ensure that they, in fact, are continuing to have an interest in marine sciences and conservationism. 

Alternative 3: Revolutionary Policy - Hybrid Expanded YWS/Hispanic Education Program

The revolutionary policy would go well beyond the current and alternative policies by expanding implementing a unified policy among the Aquarium, the YWS program, the Monterey school system, and local colleges and universities, which together would intercede with Hispanic children as early as possible, preferably starting in kindergarten, to begin changing basic academic skills, such as reading, writing and math, to develop higher academic achievement at an earlier age, and also introduce science at an earlier age to Hispanic girls by expanding the YWS program to begin in kindergarten or first grade, and continue through twelfth grade, where participants will serve as both participants and mentors to younger girls, and after graduation from high school as mentors. Early intervention will also fulfill the revolutionary policy of negating traditional stereotypes little Hispanic girls are exposed to discouraging them from pursuing STEM subjects.

By starting early, and continuing without interruption until graduation from high school, the YWS program will have a much stronger chance to achieve the long-term policy goal of increasing substantially the number of Hispanic women in marine sciences in Monterey.

The YWS program must keep its mission of including underrepresented minorities in scientific opportunities at the core of the policy. It will also require significantly increased support and funding from not only the Aquarium itself but possibly also by partnering with STEM departments at local universities and environmental organizations. Partnering with other prestigious environmental programs and renowned environmental organizations will strengthen the YWS brand, making a YWS graduate more marketable in the long-term. However, ensuring the highest level of YWS graduates going on to pursue STEM-based careers in the future requires raising awareness of the YWS program to a much larger audience. The YWS program should be designed with the mission of increasing enrollment to at least 40-80 students per year. 

Implementing this policy would include the following activities:  

1. Developing stronger partnerships with Monterey public schools, K-12, and expanding the YWS program to a year-round program;

2. Developing partnerships with environmental, marine biology, sustainability-oriented undergraduate/graduate programs either locally or nationally; 

3. Partnering with environmental organizations; 

4. Identifying key sponsors to help facilitate long-term engagement with YWS graduates and the local community; 

5. Partnering with organizations encouraging young women to pursue STEM careers.

6. Changing Monterey County school policy to implement programs to intervene in Hispanic children’s education as early as Kindergarten to raise Hispanics’ academic achievement.

Implementation and Outcomes

1. Developing stronger partnerships with Monterey County public schools.

Under the revolutionary policy, the Monterey Bay Aquarium, through YWS, would in partnership with the Monterey public school system, develop grade-specific bilingual programs starting in kindergarten or first grade, designed with the goal of introducing each and every public school girl in Monterey County to the offerings of the YWS program. Applications and YWS brochures should be provided at the end of the assembly for those interested in participating in the program. These materials will be printed in English and Spanish. Participation will be open to all students, but the special focus will be placed on Hispanic students. Part of developing stronger partnerships with local schools would also include visiting schools regularly to do grade-appropriate presentations to teach students about how much fun STEM subjects can be, and the benefits of STEM-based careers as well as the importance of marine conservation. Such presentations would be used as an indirect advertisement for the YWS program. This revolutionary policy may require the hiring of additional qualified bilingual teachers.

2. Developing partnerships with universities.

Many universities today not only teach but are actively engaged with the local population’s needs. Programs that teach sustainability-oriented courses would be contacted to see if any interest exists in connecting their students and staff with YWS students, staff and/or the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Also, as part of the YWS program, participants would be exposed to the marine science departments in participating universities, labs, field work and hopefully Hispanic department members, preferably women, who can provide real role models to the Hispanic girls who are participating. Also, as part of the YWS program, and to achieve the goal of placing Hispanic women in university marine biology programs of study, the YWS program in conjunction with select universities will offer scholarships. The fundraising will be done by volunteers and interns, who will serve in diverse capacities, to not only raise money, but to establish and extend the Aquarium’s profile via social media, the composition and regular distribution of a newsletter, and numerous program-related special events. 

3. Partnering with environmental organizations.

Partnering with environmental organizations is an important step in helping legitimize the benefits and strength of the YWS program. Through the official endorsement of organizations openly committed to marine conservation, the YWS program would be backed both by the Aquarium and nationally recognized environmental organizations. Such connections can help YWS graduates later in seeking internships, volunteer opportunities and/or careers later in life. It will also help the YWS develop programs with a broader range of perspectives.

4. Sponsors

Implementing the revolutionary policy will be costly compared to the resources it currently requires from the Aquarium. The Aquarium may need to seek both organizational and corporate sponsorships in helping fund not only the 3-week summer YWS program itself, but also the year-round program, and the manpower and resources it will take to partner with environmental organizations and universities. Such measures can be done as part of a corporation’s sustainability initiative and stand to benefit YWS substantially.

5. Partnering with organizations that promote female empowerment and female careers in STEM.

Because promoting STEM careers in young women is so central to YWS’ mission and goal, the YWS program should pursue other reputable organizations that actively seek to reduce the gender and race disparities in STEM-based careers. Such organizations not only stand to help YWS reframe its program to be more successful, but will also help connect YWS graduates with like-minded women who can act as living proof of the benefits of pursuing STEM careers to Hispanic girls and women. These partnerships will also help legitimize YWS’ mission of female empowerment and reducing the gender and racial disparities in STEM. Also, part of the policy will deal with improving the capabilities of Latinas to resist the typical stereotypes and cultural impediments to their becoming involved in STEM subjects. This policy contemplates intervention at home, where Hispanic parents will be informed about the benefits of encouraging their daughters instead of discouraging them to pursue careers in STEM fields. In order to eradicate these stereotypes, mentors and others will need to reinforce the validity of the young Latinas involvement in STEM fields as “normal”.

6. Changing Monterey County school policy for early Hispanic academic intervention

Based on research showing the disparities between early education at home and at nursery and preschool for white children and Hispanic children, the revolutionary policy will require the Monterey school system to develop a system, in conjunction with the Aquarium and its YWS program, which has two functions: (1) to expose Hispanic children as early as preschool to academic pursuits, such as reading, writing and math, to begin a process of elevating the academic achievement level of Hispanics; and (2) to teach Latinas at these early ages that STEM subjects are as much for them as anyone else, to acclimate Latinas to STEM subjects and to counter the common stereotypes that males are better at math, and girls should not be interested in STEM fields. This policy will also mandate the hiring of more bilingual Hispanic teachers at all appropriate grade levels to narrow the gap between Hispanic students and Hispanic teachers.

Limitations

The revolutionary policy is far more complex and will require a great deal more administration coordinating among all the various partners involved in implementing the policy. Also, since the policy will require involvement from public agencies, and other partners, agency and/or corporate requirements, budget and policy constraints may need to be met. Also, since the focus is on aid to the Hispanic community, there are those who may argue that there is some form of preferential treatment. Finally, the complexities of implementing these policies will involve more cost, though others may argue the outcome if achieved is worth the additional cost. 

EVALUATION OF POLICY ALTERNATIVES

Outcomes and Criteria:

Three policy alternatives are evaluated. The first is the status quo, the current policy which simply continues implementing the YWS program. The second alternative policy is the incremental policy, which is an expanded YWS program. The third alternative policy is the revolutionary policy and is a hybrid YWS and Monterey public school system program aimed at overcoming traditional gender and race stereotypes, twelve years of STEM learning and follow-up for young girls, and intervening in Hispanic education at the earliest possible time to raise the academic achievement level of Hispanic children. 

Each of the policies considered will be evaluated according to four criteria: Effectiveness, Political feasibility, Operational feasibility, and Efficiency. Efficiency is analyzed along a benefit to cost ratio and evaluates maximization of benefit against relative costs. Higher ratings indicate higher cost-effectiveness. Political feasibility analyzes the extent to which each policy is likely to be endorsed by various stakeholders and others. Higher ratings indicate a higher likelihood of endorsement. Operational feasibility analyzes the extent to which administration of the policy results in a substantial burden or not on the systems and/or parties involved in carrying out the policy. Higher ratings indicate that the policy alternative is more feasible. Effectiveness analyzes the extent to which each policy can achieve the goal of bringing more Hispanic women into marine sciences in Monterey County. Higher ratings indicated that a policy is more likely to achieve the goal.  

Alternative 1: Current Policy Evaluation 

Efficiency

The current policy addresses the challenge of the accessibility to conservation education within the Hispanic community. The demand for the YWS by the Hispanic community far exceeds Monterey Bay Aquarium’s funding capacity. 20-25 young girls applied in the first 3 years and grew to 100 applicants in 2012. YWS appears to have been successful in raising awareness of its program, and this has caused YWS to seek more funding to cover increased enrollment. To adjust to the short-term challenges, however, YWS has had to make entrance requirements more competitive in order to keep the actual costs of the program manageable. Since the demand for admission into the YWS program far exceeds the funding capacity of the Aquarium and has resulted in admission competition, it has become inefficient at accomplishing the policy goal of bringing more Hispanic women to marine sciences in Monterey.

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