Patterns and Prevention of Women Victimization

Men have been the leading perpetrators of women's victimization. Often times, women who become victims of sexual assault crimes portray similar characteristics. The current literature review will present, analyze, and extrapolate similarities of current and older research studies conducted in the field of women victimization. This review will include statistical data regarding the victimization of women, attributes and risk factors consistently found in women who fall victims of sexual assault, the elements that constitute sexual assaults, and suggested methodologies to prevent and lower the statistics on the victimization of women. Understanding the patterns and prevention of women's victimization will encapsulate the history of female victims while highlighting the intricacies and long-term consequences of women's victimization.

Statistical Analysis of Women Victimization

The majority of victimization crimes are perpetrated by men, as opposed to women. According to Warner’s research literature about women and crime, reports show men commit eighty percent of violent crimes, which results in an enormous gender difference in crimes committed (2012). The researcher also states that the majority of women victimization is committed by a known person, such as their intimate partner, former boyfriend or husband (Warner, 2012). Furthermore, the study reveals that most of the victimization was initiated during a woman’s childhood stages (Warner, 2012). Examples of sexual assault women received during childhood include domestic violence, rape, and physical or sexual abuse (Warner, 2012). In addition to the information gathered about women’s victimization history and risk factors, the analysis revealed criminal consequences as a result of such coercion (Warner, 2012). For instance, a woman who is currently being victimized by their male partner most likely has low self-esteem and no command over her life. Often times, the perpetrator pressures the woman to commit crimes by damaging or stealing her personal property (Warner, 2012). As a result, women experience a financial burden and seek criminal activities to make financial ends meet (Warner, 2012). In addition to Warner’s research literature, the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Census Bureau ensures a revised definition of one of the sexual assaults women experience, such as rape.

Women victimization oftentimes leads to their death. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Census Bureau, women have a greater than fifty percent probability to be victims of murder or homicide by their male significant other, such as a boyfriend or husband (Craven, 1996, p. 2). Instances, where the female caused the death of their male partner, were minuscule in relation to the reported cases where the male killed their female partner. In situations where the offense was reported, research revealed that twenty-six percent of husbands or boyfriends murdered their female partners, while only three percent of females killed their male partners (Craven, 1996, p. 2). Women victimization was not only experienced due to a male intimate partner, but male relatives were also included in the list of male aggravators. Overall, the male offenders are people known to the victims, as oppose to strangers. Particularly, current and former spouses, boyfriend, or ex-boyfriends were amongst the list of offenders reported by female victims (Craven, 1996, p. 2). This literature is supported by Warner’s most recent study in 2012.

Attributes and Risk Factors Presented by Victimized Women

Women at risk of victimization oftentimes possess certain common attributes. In an experiment conducted by Franklin, the sample consisted of characteristics including a median age of twenty-two or twenty-three years, 76.6 percent of women were of white while 23.4 percent were non-white (2011, p. 6). Surprisingly, the majority of the women were employed. Specifically, 61.3 percent were employed while 38.7 percent were unemployed (Franklin, 2011, 6). This analysis consisted of three variables of victimizations, such as property, personal, and sexual assault victimization (Franklin, 2011, p. 10). The results of this examination revealed a significant correlation between self-control and property victimization. Particularly, the fewer self-control participants demonstrated, the greater the risk of property victimization. For instance, the more time women spent attending social gatherings and celebrations, the probability of victimization increased. Similarly, the fewer self-control participants demonstrated in the level of personal victimization, the greater their risk of such victimization. With regards to the third variable of sexual assault victimization, the literature discovered that the fewer self-control participants demonstrated in selling drugs, the greater their exposure to sexual assault victimization (Franklin, 2011, p. 11). Out of all three variables, the importance of self-control and personal victimization had the greatest ratio correlation, followed by self-control and sexual assault victimization, and lastly, by property victimization.

Most of the women who suffered from victimization were typical of low socio-economic status. Additionally, such women were not provided with the privilege of education or the opportunity to work. Consequently, these women would usually find themselves depending on their male partners; thus, subjecting themselves and their children to regular exposure of maltreatment and abuse. According to DeHart’s research on “Pathways to prison impact of victimization in the lives of incarcerated women,” results revealed that victimized women were “confined by social conditions” and “forced to make hard choices with very few options” (DeHart, 2004, p. 54). The difficulty in escaping and breaking the negative social victimization pattern rested in their social environment and influences. As an escape of the frustration and psychological torture women were subjected to, they committed acts of crime, which resulted in imprisonment. DeHart’s research emphasizes the ability women had in deciding whether to follow the acts of crime, such as those expressed by Warner’s study (2004, p. 55, 2012). The former psychological traumas these women had been exposed to must be noted as an imperative component of the analysis. Examples of the traumas these women experienced include “child abuse, sexual violence, and several types of victimizations” (DeHart, 2004, p. 56). As a result, in addition to the statistical references provided by the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Census Bureau, Warner’s examples of the path that lead women to criminal activity, and DeHart’s literature stating that victimized women have the ability to decide which path to walk, DeHart also presents previous psychological and physiological abuse, which also develops and mold’s a woman’s future.

Elements of Sexual Victimization

According to the Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, the elements that constitute the definition of rape have been altered. The new definition has been classified under three factors, such as “rape completed, attempts to commit rape, and historical rape” (Law Enforcement Support Section (LESS) & Crime Statistics Management Unit (CSMU), 2013, p. 2). Female victims of rape completed are those who have experienced involuntary superficial or deep penetration through the vagina, anus, or mouth by another person’s body or through the other person’s use of objects (Law Enforcement Support Section (LESS) & Crime Statistics Management Unit (CSMU), 2013, p. 2). Additionally, the involuntary act of inserting another person’s sexual organs in the victim’s mouth is also a factoring element in the definition of rape (Law Enforcement Support Section (LESS) & Crime Statistics Management Unit (CSMU), 2013, p. 2). In addition to the immediate definition of completed rape, the attempt to rape is also considered a crime. Attempts include the initiating process of rape, which was interrupted by an outside factor (Law Enforcement Support Section (LESS) & Crime Statistics Management Unit (CSMU), 2013, p. 2). According to the CJIS and the UCR, although the rape was not completed, the attempt itself classifies under rape crime (Law Enforcement Support Section (LESS) & Crime Statistics Management Unit (CSMU), 2013, p. 3). While the historical definition is known as, “The carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will” is vague and easily misunderstood, the revised definition explicitly clarifies the elements that compose a rape crime (Law Enforcement Support Section (LESS) & Crime Statistics Management Unit (CSMU), 2013, p. 12). This clarification will serve as a more accurate representation of sexual assault offenses, specifically, rape crimes.

A recent study revealed that sexual victimization is composed of several elements, such as verbal coercion leading to sexual intercourse, rape by a stranger. While the current definition provided by the Law Enforcement Support Section (LESS) & Crime Statistics Management Unit (CSMU) is more focused on the actual criminal act of rape, the scientific analysis presented by the University at Buffalo encompasses a broader exploration of sexual victimization. Similarities reveal that sexual victimization occurred in the forms of an involuntary and forced rape or attempted rape (University at Buffalo, 2007). Additionally, victimization risk factors for women who were at risk of being exposed to such crime differ by the perpetrator. Particularly, risk factors leading to assaults of “intimate and non-intimate partners” differ (University at Buffalo, 2007). This study revealed that women who remained in abusive relationships were more likely to continue receiving the abuse. Such abuse consisted of factors such as refusing to have sexual intercourse with an intimate partner (University at Buffalo, 2007). The risk factors that attract sexual victimization by non-intimate are repeated sexual encounters by non-intimate partners. Such liberal behavior is more likely to lead to future unwanted sexual encounters. Strategies to reduce the number of victimization have been presented by Testa (University at Buffalo, 2007). The goal of one of the methods suggested by targeting non-intimate partners is to reduce the drinking patterns at outside places and to reduce sexual partners.

Methods to Reduce and Prevent Women Victimization

In comparison to the literature conducted by the University at Buffalo in the year 2007, the experimental analysis performed by Greene and Heilbrun in the year 2011 suggested methods to reduce the victimization of women. Significantly, the examination revealed that programs to prevent crimes, such as rape, recommended a change in situations that involved heavy drinking patterns (Greene & Heilbrun, 2011, p. 380). Additionally, the study suggested developing a practice in resisting the pressure from submitting to involuntary sexual encounters (Greene & Heilbrun, 2011, p. 380). The purpose of these programs is to assist women to acquire new and positive behaviors and to eradicate the idea that victims are at fault of their own victimization. Similarly to the analysis conducted by the University of Buffalo, Greene and Heilbrun’s literature reveals that women with a history of sexual assault are at a higher risk of being a victim of the same assault in the future (2011, p. 380). Although the investigation does not provide results as to why this is more likely to occur, it suggests that the causes might be due to low self-esteem. Specifically, the idea of experiencing another sexual assault will not make a difference in the lives of women who have already been victimized. Furthermore, victims with a history of sexual assault also begin to believe that they will only be wanted for sexual gratification. Researchers of the same study believe that if women who have never been victimized register for prevention programs, the possibilities of any future victimization will be highly unlikely in relation to women who enter the program after being victimized (Greene & Heilbrun, 2011, p. 380). Such difference is most likely due to the opportunity of developing a strong and positive mentality prior to the negative event, as opposed to altering ideas that have been previously conceived and implemented in the minds of women.

Although most of the focus regarding the patterns and prevention of victimization has been placed upon women, the literature by Greene and Heilbrun suggests implementing programs for rapists. The purpose of such programs is to lower their desire for coercing and abusing women into unwanted sexual encounters. Programs for rapists are provided to men who have already committed the crimes. Such rape programs are usually executed in prisons or jails while the offender completes his rape sentence (Greene & Heilbrun, 2011, p. 380). As part of the rape programs, offenders must acknowledge being at fault of the crime (Greene & Heilbrun, 2011, p. 380). Subsequently, the offender must participate in the rape program (Greene & Heilbrun, 2011, p. 380). As part of this program, the United States commonly administers antiandrogen drugs to inmates with the purpose of reducing the individual’s sexual desire, which is also known as chemical castration (Greene & Heilbrun, 2011, p. 380-381). This physiological treatment is more likely to have a greater prevention effect than the sole treatment of the mind and behavior.

In addition to the treatment programs aforementioned, Heimer and Kruttschnitt believe that the legal consequences implemented on perpetrators of sexual assault should collaboratively join the legal consequences and the prevention strategies of the social services. This partnership will result in a higher probability of preventing criminal acts, such as rape, sexual assault, and coercion. As a result, women who are victimized will be less exposed to such offenders; thus, an increase in self-esteem and a decrease in fear are more likely to occur. The negative factor of collaborating legal and social services is that most of the cases regarding sexual assault and rape are not reported as frequently as they occur. Additionally, the minimal numbers of women who actually report sexual offenses do not proceed and follow the complete process of a trial and sentence (Heimer & Kruttschnitt, 2006, p. 230). Often times, the legal system serves as a form of victimization. This occurs when the defense attorney and perpetrator remain bold in their plea of not guilty to the sexual assault or the accused crime (Heimer & Kruttschnitt, 2006, p. 230). The same analysis reveals some of the problems expected to arise from this collaborative effort. These problems include “victim safety, manipulation of the process by offenders, pressure on victims, mixed loyalties, and cheap justice (Heimer & Kruttschnitt, 2006, p. 234). While some people might not agree with the joint partnership of legal and social services as a method of prevention, other researchers believe that such a partnership might be what makes the difference in restoring the lives of victimized women.

Considering the new technological and social media advances, the literature conducted by Humphries focused on women's victimization by such mediums. The examination presented by Humphries supports that of DeHart in 2004 in the importance of targeting social influences. The study acknowledges certain television programs that minimize the victimization of women and others, such as Lifetime reveal the true victimization of women (Humphries, 2009). In comparison to the literature of Greene & Heilbrun in 2011 and the University at Buffalo in 2007, Humphries reinforces the idea that one event of victimization is more likely to lead to another. This process often occurs during a medical procedure implemented after rape where the doctor treats the patient as any other regular sick patient. The victimization is further implemented by law enforcement officers who question her accountability. Finally, as the analysis of Heimer & Kruttschnitt in 2006 mentions, the legal system’s lack of priority over these criminal acts exemplifies another form of victimization. With the absence of a strong and bold legal consequence on sexual assault offenders, society should be constantly reminded of the long term consequences that result from violence committed against women.

The same study suggests greater involvement of women in several professional roles. Such roles include leading television content and becoming film directors, writers, and producers (Humphries, 2009). In doing so, women will have greater control over which image to portray to society, especially to men. Society’s mentality is oftentimes created after viewing and absorbing information from the media. By altering and shifting the perpetrator and victimization perspective instilled in men and women, the community will begin to absorb and develop a different notion on victimization.

Conclusion

The current literature review has presented the patterns and prevention methods of women victimization. Additionally, the analysis expanded on the history of sexual assault and prevention methods for men and women. Similarities, results, and suggestions of current and older research of women victimization have been presented. Furthermore, research statistical references were incorporated as the introduction to the literature review, as well as risk factors that lead to the victimization of women. For the reasons detailed above, women's victimization is a crucial fact of reality and one which has been undermined by the justice system and society. Subsequently, this literature review concludes with the idea that it is imperative for the justice system and social services to join forces with the purpose of a substantial reduction of the statistics presented in this review.

References

Craven, D. (1996). ---. Female victims of violent crime (p. 2). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

DeHart, D. D. (2004). ---. Pathways to prison impact of victimization in the lives of incarcerated women (p. 55). Columbia, SC: The Center for Child & Family Studies, College of Social Work, University of South Carolina.

Franklin, C. A. (2011). --. Risk factors associated with women's victimization (pp. 6,10-11). Huntsville, Tex.: Crime Victims' Institute, Sam Houston State University.

Greene, E., & Heilbrun, K. (2011). Psychology of victims. Wrightsman's psychology and the legal system (7th ed., pp. 380-381). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Greene and Heilbrun's study included methods of preventing and reduce women's victimization. His methodology was focused on implementing and/or reinforcing programs provided to inmates accused of sexual assault. The literature informs the process implemented by the justice system and the elements that must be met. Additionally, Greene and Heilbrun include physiological treatments the inmates receive to reduce their sexual desire; thus, reducing the statistics on women's victimization, such as rape. Finally, the study discusses programs the United States offers to target the victimization of women.

Heimer, K., & Kruttschnitt, C. (2006). Restorative justice for victims of sexual assault. Gender and crime: patterns of victimization and offending (pp. 230, 234). New York: New York University.

Heimer and Kruttschnitt's study consists of a joint collaboration of the justice system and social services. The study believes that the use of teamwork in these two fields will lower women victimization, such as sexual assault, and rape. Consequently, women will be able to focus on raising their self-esteem while lowering their fear of life, especially of men. Furthermore, the literature recognizes the negative factors of the criminal justice system in its actions that continue women victimization. Finally, Heimer and Kruttschnitt acknowledge a large number of women who do not report sexual assault crimes.

Humphries, D. (2009). Does gender make a difference. Women, violence, and the media readings in feminist criminology (pp. --). Boston: Northeastern University Press.

(LESS), L. E., & (CSMU), C. S. (2013). Reporting Rape in 2013 Summary Reporting System (SRS) User Manual and Technical Specification. Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program (pp. 2-3, 12). United States: Federal Bureau of Investigations.

University at Buffalo. (2007, March 13). Eighteen percent of young women experience sexual victimization. Science Daily.

Warner, J. A. (2012). Problems, controversies, and solutions. Women and crime: a reference handbook (pp. --). Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO.

Warner's study was one of the most recent studies presented in the literature review. His literature was completed in 2012 and it entailed statistical analysis regarding women victimization. Significantly, it emphasized on the percentage of male perpetrators, as opposed to women offenders. Additionally, Warner's study consisted of factors that have led to women victimization. Some of these factors occurred during childhood, such as domestic violence, rape, and physical abuse. Finally, the consequences of sexual assault were presented.